The Hawaiian Islands

A luau (in Hawaiian, lu'au) is a Hawaiian feast. It may feature food, such as poi, kalua pig, poke, lomi salmon, opihi, haupia, and beer; and entertainment, such as Hawaiian music and hula. Among people from Hawaii, the concepts of "luau" and "party" are often blended, resulting in graduation luaus, wedding luaus, and birthday luaus.

Etymology and history
According to Pukui & Elbert (1986:214), the name "luau" goes back "at least to 1856, when so used by the Pacific Commercial Advertiser." Earlier, such a feast was called a "paina" (p'ina) or ahaaina ('aha'aina). The newer name comes from that of a food always served at a luau: young taro tops baked with coconut milk and chicken or octopus. Common luau foods "[T]he Hawaiian staff of life, made from cooked taro corms, or rarely breadfruit, pounded and thinned with water" (Pukui & Elbert 1986:337). It can be thick or thin, and can be new and sweet, or old and tangy (fermented). Hawaiians also had poi mai'a "[m]ashed ripe bananas and water" before 1778, and thereafter, poi palaoa "[f]lour poi, made by stirring flour in hot water, eaten alone or mixed with taro poi". Breadfruit poi is called poi 'ulu. Another of the various pois is poi 'uala, or pa'i 'uala, "[c]ooked and compressed sweet potatoes allowed to ferment slightly and used as a substitute for poi when poi was scarce" (Pukui & Elbert 1986:303, 337). Mashing is a common characteristic of Hawaiian food preparation.
Poke. The traditional Hawaiian poke was raw fish, gutted and sliced across the backbone. The slices still had skin and bones, which were spit out after all the flesh had been eaten. Poke was eaten with condiments such as salt, seaweed, and crushed roasted kukui nuts (inamona). Modern poke is made with skinned, deboned, and carefully filleted fish, and takes a variety of dressings and condiments. Poke means "slice" in Hawaiian (Pukui & Elbert 1986:337).
Lomilomi salmon. Raw salmon "worked with the fingers and mixed with diced tomatoes, onions and seasoned with seasalt" (Pukui & Elbert 1986:212). Lomi means "mash".
Laulau. "Packages of ti leaves or banana leaves containing pork, beef, salted fish, or taro tops, baked in the ground oven, steamed or broiled" (Pukui & Elbert 1986:196).
Kalua pig. Pork cooked in a pit oven (imu). A whole dressed pig (pua'a) is salted, wrapped, lowered into the ground oven, and covered. Klua is the earth-oven cooking method (Pukui & Elbert 1986:123).
Opihi ('opihi). Raw limpet meat. Three species are called koele (k'ele), alinalina ('linalina), and makaiauli (makaiauli) (Pukui & Elbert 1986:292).
Chicken long rice. Cellophane noodles (also known as "long rice"), simmered in chicken broth and served hot with pieces of chicken.
Rice.
Haupia (haupia). Coconut-arrowroot pudding. Cornstarch is substituted for the arrowroot (Pukui & Elbert 1986:62).
Kulolo (klolo). Coconut-taro pudding (Pukui & Elbert 1986:181).
At modern luaus, drinks may include beer, soda, juice, etc. Many 19th century public luaus would have been "teetotal". At the lavish private luaus hosted by 19th century figures like the genial King Kalakaua, imported wine and hard liquor were prominent items on the menu.

Hawaiian feasts before 1778 would have featured pig, chicken, dog, seafood, bananas, coconuts, sweet potatoes, and taro. None of those, except seafood, were indigenous to the Hawaiian islands, but were introduced by Polynesian settlers. Many of the foods now considered "traditional" at luaus were introduced by Europeans, Americans, or Asians. Dog meat is no longer eaten (legally) in the islands.

Before the breaking of the kapus in 1819 (the 'Ai Noa), Hawaiian men and women ate separately, and certain foods, such as pig and most species of bananas, were forbidden to women.

Republic of Hawaii

lani Palace in Honolulu, formerly the residence of the Hawaiian monarch, was the capitol of the Republic of Hawaii.
lani Palace in Honolulu, formerly the residence of the Hawaiian monarch, was the capitol of the Republic of Hawaii.

The Republic of Hawaii was the formal name of Hawaii from 1894 to 1898 when it was run as a republic. The republic period occurred between the administration of the Provisional Government of Hawaii which ended on July 4, 1894 and the adoption of the Newlands Resolution in Congress in which the Republic was annexed to the United States and became the Territory of Hawaii on July 7, 1898.

U.S. Territory

Territory of Hawaii

When William McKinley won the presidential election in November of 1896, the question of Hawaii's annexation to the U.S. was again opened. The previous president, Grover Cleveland, was a friend of Queen Liliuokalani. He had remained opposed to annexation until the end of his term, but McKinley was open to persuasion by U.S. expansionists and by annexationists from Hawaii. He agreed to meet with a committee of annexationists from Hawaii, Lorrin Thurston, Francis Hatch and William Kinney. After negotiations, in June of 1897, McKinley agreed to a treaty of annexation with these representatives of the Republic of Hawaii.[16] The president then submitted the treaty to the U.S. Senate for approval.

Despite some opposition in the islands, the Newlands Resolution was passed by the House June 15, 1898, by a vote of 209 to 91, and by the Senate on July 6, 1898, by a vote of 42 to 21, annexing Hawaii as a U.S. territory. Its legality continues to be questioned because it was a United States Government resolution, not a treaty of cession or conquest as is required by international law. Both houses of the American Congress carried the measure with two-thirds majorities.

In 1900, Hawaii was granted self-governance and retained %u02BBIolani Palace as the territorial capitol building. Though several attempts were made to achieve statehood, Hawaii remained a territory for sixty years. Plantation owners, such as the Big Five, found territorial status convenient, enabling them to continue importing cheap foreign labor; such immigration was prohibited in various states of the U.S.

The power of the plantation owners was finally broken by activist descendants of original immigrant laborers. Because they were born in a U.S. territory, they were legal U.S. citizens. Expecting to gain full voting rights, they actively campaigned for statehood for the Hawaiian Islands.

U.S. Statehood
All representative districts voted at least 93% in favor of Admission acts. Ballot (inset) and referendum results for the Admission Act of 1959.
All representative districts voted at least 93% in favor of Admission acts. Ballot (inset) and referendum results for the Admission Act of 1959.

In March 1959, both houses of Congress passed the Hawaii Admission Act and U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed it into law. (The act excluded Palmyra Atoll, part of the Kingdom and Territory of Hawaii, from the new state.) On June 27 of that year, a referendum was held asking residents of Hawaii to vote on accepting the statehood bill. Hawaii voted at a ratio of 17 to 1 to accept. There has been criticism, however, of the Statehood plebiscite, because the only choices were to accept the Act or to remain a territory, without addressing the issues of legality surrounding the overthrow.[17][18][19] Despite the criticism, the United Nations decolonization committee later removed Hawaii from the United Nations list of Non-Self-Governing Territories.

After statehood, Hawaii quickly became a modern state with a construction boom and rapidly growing economy. The Hawaii Republican Party, which was strongly supported by the plantation owners, was voted out of office. In its place, the Democratic Party of Hawaii dominated state politics for forty years.

In recent decades, the state government has implemented programs to promote Hawaiian culture. The Hawaii State Constitutional Convention of 1978 incorporated as state constitutional law specific programs such as the creation of the Office of Hawaiian Affairs to promote the indigenous Hawaiian language and culture.

Location, topography, and geology

An archipelago situated some 3,200 kilometres (approx. 2000 miles) southwest of the North American mainland,[2] Hawaii is the southernmost state of the United States and the second westernmost state after Alaska. Only Hawaii and Alaska are outside the contiguous United States and do not share a border with any other U.S. state.

Hawaii is the only state of the United States that

* is not located in North America
* is separated from the mainland by water
* is completely surrounded by water
* continuously grows in area (due to currently active lava flows, most notably from Kilauea (K%u012Blauea).)
* is located entirely within the tropics.

Map of Hawaii
Map of Hawaii
Na Pali coast, Kauai
Na Pali coast, Kauai

Hawaii's tallest mountain, Mauna Kea stands at 13,796 feet (4,205 m)[3] and is taller than Mount Everest if followed to the base of the mountain - on the floor of the Pacific Ocean.[4]

All of the Hawaiian islands were formed by volcanos erupting from the sea floor from a magma source described in geological theory as a hotspot. The theory maintains that as the tectonic plate beneath much of the Pacific Ocean moves in a northwesterly direction, the hot spot remains stationary, slowly creating new volcanoes. This explains why only volcanoes on the southern half of the Big Island, and the Loihi Seamount (L%u014D%u02BBihi) deep below the waters off its southern coast, are presently active, with Loihi being the newest volcano to form.

The last volcanic eruption outside the Big Island happened at Haleakala (Haleakal%u0101) on Maui in the late 18th century (though recent research suggests that Haleakala's most recent eruptive activity could be hundreds of years older).[5]

The volcanic activity and subsequent erosion created impressive geological features. The Big Island is notable as the world's fifth highest island.

Because of the islands' volcanic formation, native life before human activity is said to have arrived by the "3 W's": wind (carried through the air), waves (brought by ocean currents), and wings (birds, insects, and whatever they brought with them). The isolation of the Hawaiian Islands in the middle of the Pacific Ocean, and the wide range of environments to be found on high islands located in and near the tropic, has resulted in a vast array of endemic flora and fauna. Hawaii has more endangered species per square mile and has lost a higher percent of its endemic species than anywhere else on Earth.[citation needed]
A NASA satellite composition of the Hawaiian Islands.
A NASA satellite composition of the Hawaiian Islands.

Areas under the control and protection of the National Park Service include:

* Ala Kahakai National Historic Trail on the Big Island
* Haleakala National Park in Kula
* Hawaii Volcanoes National Park on the Big Island
* Kalaupapa National Historical Park in Kalaupapa
* Kaloko-Honokohau National Historical Park in Kailua-Kona
* Pu'uhonua o Honaunau National Historical Park in Honaunau
* Puukohola Heiau National Historic Site in Kawaihae
* USS Arizona Memorial at Honolulu

The Island of Hawaii (called the Big Island or Hawaii Island) is a volcanic island in the Pacific Ocean and one of the eight main islands that compose the U.S. state of Hawaii. With an area of 4,028 square miles (10,432 km²), it is the largest island in the United States and the 76th largest island in the world. Larger than all of the other Hawaiian Islands combined, Hawaii is said to have been named for Hawaii loa, the legendary Polynesian navigator who first discovered it. However, other accounts attribute the name to the legendary land or realm of Hawaiki, a place from which the Polynesians originated (see also Manua), the place where they go in the afterlife, the realm of the gods.

The Island of Hawaii is administered under the County of Hawaii. The county seat is Hilo. It is estimated that as of the year 2003, the island had a resident population of 158,400 persons.

(usually Oahu outside Hawaiian and Hawaiian English), the "Gathering Place", is the third largest of the Hawaiian Islands and most populous of the islands in the State of Hawaii. The state capital Honolulu is located on the southeast coast. Including small close-in offshore islands such as Ford Island and the islands in Kaneohe Bay and off the eastern coast, it has a total land area of 596.7 square miles (1,545.4 km²), making it the 20th largest island in the United States.[1] In greatest dimension, this volcanic island is 44 miles (71 km) long and 30 miles (48 km) across. The length of the shoreline is 227 miles (365 km). The island is the result of two separate shield volcanoes: WaiBanae and Koolau, with a broad "valley" or saddle (the central OBahu Plain) between them. The highest point is Mt. Kala in the Wai%u02BBanae Range, rising to 4,003 feet (1,220 m) above sea level.[2]

The island of Maui is the second-largest of the Hawaiian Islands at 727.2 square miles (1883.5 km²) and is the 17th largest island in the United States.[2] Maui is part of the State of Hawaii and is the largest island in Maui County. Three other islands, Lanai, Kahoolawe, and Molokai belong to Maui County. Together, the four islands are known as Maui Nui. As of 2000, Maui has a resident population of 117,644, which is ranked third within the state behind the islands of Oahu and Hawaii.[3]

Molokai (also Molokai) is an island in the Hawaiian archipelago. It is 38 by 10 miles (61 by 16 km) in size with a land area of 260.0 square miles (673.4 km²), making it the fifth largest of the main Hawaiian Islands and the 27th largest island in the United States.[2] It lies east of across the 25-mile (40 km) wide Kaiwi Channel and north of , separated from it by the Kalohi Channel. The lights of Honolulu are visible at night from the west end of Molokai, while nearby and Maui are clearly visible from anywhere along the south shore of the Island.

Niihau is the smallest of the inhabited Hawaiian Islands in the U.S. State of Hawaii, having an area of 69.5 square miles (180 km²).[2] Known as the "Forbidden Isle", Niihau lies 17.5 miles (28 km) across the Kaulakahi Channel, southwest of Kauai, and the crescent-shaped island of Lehua is positioned 0.7 miles (1.1 km) north of Niihau. On the island, one can find the only natural lake of Hawaii called Lake Halulu.

Owned by Keith Robinson and Bruce Robinson, the island has been privately owned by the Robinson family since 1864. As a result, Niihau is generally off-limits to all but relatives of the island's owners, U.S. Navy personnel, government officials and invited guests. Tourists are able to visit the island through a limited number of supervised tours, including diving, hiking, and hunting safaris. Ni%u02BBihau is also referred to as the "Mystery Island", the "Distant Isle" and sometimes the "Forgotten Island", as it is frequently omitted on tourist maps. The island is famous as the location for the Niihau Incident, in which a Japanese fighter pilot crashed on the island and terrorized its residents during World War II. Commercially, the people of Niihau are known internationally for their gemlike shell lei craftsmanship.

Kauai (in standard Hawaiian pronounced [kaui]; in Kauai-NiBihau dialect, usually spelled Kauai outside the Hawaiian Islands and pronounced ) is the oldest of the main Hawaiian Islands. With an area of 552.3 square miles (1,430.5 km²), it is the fourth largest of the main islands in the Hawaiian archipelago and the 21st largest island in the United States.[2] Known also as the "Garden Isle", Kauai lies 105 miles (170 kilometers) across the Kauai Channel, northwest of OBahu. Of volcanic origin, the highest peak on this mountainous island is Kawaikini at 5,243 feet (1,598 m).[3] The second highest peak is Mount Wai near the center of the island, 5,148 feet (1,569 m) above sea level. One of the wettest spots on Earth, with an annual average rainfall of 460 inches (11,700 mm), is located on the east side of Mount Wai. The high annual rainfall has eroded deep valleys in the central mountains, carving out canyons with many scenic waterfalls.

There is no known meaning behind the name of Kauai. Native Hawaiian tradition indicates the name's origin in the legend of Hawaii loa - the Polynesian navigator attributed with discovery of the Hawaiian Islands. The story relates how he named the island of Kauai after a favorite son; therefore a possible translation of Kauai is "place around the neck", meaning how a father would carry a favorite child. In South Africa, a health food and drink franchise is named after the island [4].

The United States Census Bureau defines Kauai as Census Tracts 401 through 409 of Kauai County, Hawaii, which is all of the county except for the islands of KaBula, Lehua, and Niihau. The 2000 census population of Kauai (the island) was 58,303. [5]

Lanai is the sixth-largest of the Hawaiian Islands. It is also known as the Pineapple Island because of its past as an island-wide pineapple plantation. The only town is City, a small settlement. The island is somewhat comma-shaped, with a width of 18 miles in the longest direction. The land area is 140.5 square miles (364 km²), making it the 42nd largest island in the United States.[2] It is separated from the island of Molokai by the Kalohi Channel to the north, and from Maui by the Channel to the east. The United States Census Bureau defines as Census Tract 316 of Maui County. Its total population was 3,193 as of the 2000 census.[3]. Many of the islands landmarks and sites are located off of dirt roads where four wheel drive is required.

Kahoolawe is the smallest of the 8 main volcanic islands in the Hawaiian Islands. It is located 7 miles (11.2 km) southwest of Maui and southeast of and is 11 miles (18 km) long by 6 miles (9.7 km) across. Total area is 44.6 square miles (115.5 km²).[2] The highest point is the crater of Lua Makika at the summit of Moaulanui, which is 1,477 feet (450 m) above sea level. The island is relatively dry because the low elevation fails to generate much orographic precipitation from the northeastern trade winds and it is located in the rain shadow of Maui's 10,023 feet (3,055 m) high East Maui Volcano (). More than one quarter of the island has been eroded down to saprolitic hardpan.

The United States Census Bureau defines as Block Group 9, Census Tract 303.02 of Maui County, Hawaii. There are no permanent residents living on the island.

Punalu Beach (also called Black Sand Beach) is a beach near Nlehu on the Big Island of the U.S. state of Hawaii. The beach has black sand created by lava flowing into the ocean which explodes as it reaches the ocean and cools. This volcanic activity is in the Hawaii Volcanoes National Park.

Punalu is frequented by endangered Hawksbill Turtles and Green Sea Turtles, which can often be seen basking on the black sand. Visitors must remain 15 feet from the turtles at all times. The swimming area is very rocky, and it can be dangerous to swim. The beach also has a large amount of underground fresh water that flows in it. This fresh water is very cold and looks almost like gasoline mixing with the water. Legend has it that in the time of drought, the early Hawaiians living in the area would dive underwater with a jug to get their fresh water.

Taking black sand and volcanic rocks from the area is prohibited.

Local tradition says that if any volcanic rock or black sand ifrom Punalu Beach is taken away from Hawaii, that the person that took it will be cursed by the Hawaiian volcano goddess Pele until it is returned. While purportedly an ancient Hawaiian belief, historians can trace this legend only to the mid twentieth century, and it is widely believed to have been invented by park rangers to keep visitors from taking rocks. Nevertheless, the lobby of Klauea Military Camp (now a vacation area for military personnel) has a cabinet displaying rocks returned by people attempting to atone for the bad luck that has befallen them, and letters describing their predicaments.

Russ Apple may have been the originator of this myth; as National Park Service Pacific historian and 30 year veteran of the National Park Service, Apple was instrumental in restoring Hawai'ian cultural resources in Klauea and Pu'uhonua o Honaunau National Historical Park in Kailua Kona, Hawaii.

Hawaii Volcanoes National Park, established in 1916, is a United States National Park that displays the results of hundreds of thousands of years of volcanism, migration, and evolution-processes that thrust a bare land from the sea and clothed it with complex and unique ecosystems and a distinct human culture. The park encompasses diverse environments that range from sea level to the summit of the earth's most massive volcano, Mauna Loa at 13,677 feet. Klauea, one of the world's most active volcanoes, offers scientists insights on the birth of the Hawaiian Islands and visitors' views of dramatic volcanic landscapes. The park includes 505 mi² (1348 km²) of land.

Over half of the park is designated wilderness and provides unusual hiking and camping opportunities. In recognition of its outstanding natural values, Hawaii Volcanoes National Park has been designated as an International Biosphere Reserve and a World Heritage Site.

The volcanic activity generated in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park helped create Kalapana (now covered by lava from recent eruptions) and other black sand beaches.

It is said in legend that if any volcanic rock or black sand is taken from Hawaii Volcanoes National Park (or anywhere in Hawaii) that the person that took it will be cursed by the Hawaiian volcano goddess Pele until it is returned. While purportedly an ancient Hawaiian belief, historians can trace this legend only to the mid-twentieth century, and it is widely believed to have been invented by park rangers to keep visitors from taking rocks. Nevertheless, the lobby of K%u012Blauea Military Camp (now a vacation area for military personnel) has a cabinet displaying rocks returned by people attempting to atone for the bad luck that has befallen them, and letters describing their predicaments.

Russ Apple may have been the originator of this myth; as National Park Service Pacific historian and 30 year veteran of the National Park Service, Apple was instrumental in restoring Hawaiian cultural resources in K%u012Blauea and Pu'uhonua o Honaunau National Historical Park in Kailua Kona, Hawaii.[1]

Within the park boundaries are the Thurston Lava Tube, a lava tube approximately 350 years old with a short hiking trail running through it, and the K%u012Blauea Caldera, skirted by the Volcano House Hotel, the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory, and the Jaggar Museum.

There is an undeveloped stretch of the Thurston Lava Tube which extends an additional 330 meters beyond the developed area and dead-ends into the hillside. Though it is blocked by a chain link fence to keep unwary visitors from entering, the easily traversed stretch is in fact open to the public and accessible through a gate in the fence. Visitors to the undeveloped stretch should exercise caution on the brief climb down to the tube floor due to the rough terrain. Once past the entrance, the rest of the walk is on even ground.

Klauea and its Halemau caldera were traditionally considered the sacred home of Pele, and Hawaiians visited the crater to offer gifts to the goddess. The first western visitors to the site, English missionary William Ellis and American Asa Thurston, encountered Klauea in 1823. Ellis wrote of his reaction to the first sight of the erupting volcano

Slow moving lava can be approached quite closely

Lava is entering Pacific

The attack on Pearl Harbor was a surprise attack against the United States' naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii by the Japanese navy, on the morning of Sunday, December 7, 1941, resulting in the United States becoming involved in World War II. It was intended as a preventive action to remove the US Pacific Fleet as a factor in the war Japan was about to wage against Britain, the Netherlands, and the United States. Two aerial attack waves, totaling 353[4] aircraft, launched from six Japanese aircraft carriers, intending to reduce or eliminate United States' military power in the Pacific.

The attack wrecked two U.S. Navy battleships, one minelayer, and two destroyers beyond repair, and destroyed 188 aircraft; personnel losses were 2,388 killed and 1,178 wounded. Damaged warships included three cruisers, a destroyer, and six battleships (one deliberately grounded, later refloated and repaired; two sunk at their berths, later raised, repaired, and eventually restored to Fleet service). Vital fuel storage, shipyard, maintenance, and headquarters facilities were not hit. Japanese losses were minimal, at 29 aircraft and five midget submarines, with 65 servicemen killed or wounded.

The intent of the strike was to protect Imperial Japan's advance into Malaya and the Dutch East Indies - for their natural resources such as oil and rubber - by neutralizing the U.S. Pacific Fleet. Both the U.S. and Japan had long-standing contingency plans for war in the Pacific, continuously updated as tension between the two countries steadily increased during the 1930s. Japan's expansion into Manchuria and French Indochina were greeted with steadily increasing levels of embargoes and sanctions by the United States and others. In 1940, under the Export Control Act, the U.S. halted shipments of airplanes, parts, machine tools, and aviation gasoline, which Japan saw as an unfriendly act.[5] Nevertheless, the U.S. continued to export oil to Japan, in part because it was understood in Washington cutting off oil exports would be an extreme step, given Japanese dependence on U.S. oil exports,[6][7] likely to be taken as a provocation by Japan. In the summer of 1941, after Japanese expansion into French Indochina, the U.S. ceased oil exports to Japan, in part because of new American restrictions on domestic oil consumption.[8] President Franklin D. Roosevelt had earlier moved the Pacific Fleet to Hawaii and ordered a buildup in the Philippines, hoping to deter Japanese aggression in the Far East. The Japanese high command was (mistakenly)[9] certain an attack on the United Kingdom's colonies would bring the U.S. into the war,[9] so a preventive strike appeared to be the only way[9] Japan could avoid U.S. interference in the Pacific.[10]

The attack was one of the most important engagements of World War II. Occurring as it did before a formal declaration of war, it pushed U.S. public opinion from isolationism to an acceptance war was unavoidable, as Roosevelt called December 7, 1941 "... a date which will live in infamy."