Abbreviations and meanings
Symbols Meanings
Pi Inorganic phosphate-phosphate PO4 -3
NAD+ Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
FAD Flavin adenine dinucleotide
NADP+ Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate
ATP Adenosine triphosphate
ADP Adenosine diphosphate
AMP Adenosine monophosphate

How it's Done The Differences
Reduction Oxidation Reduced state/Oxidized state
Remove oxygen Add oxygen NAD+ NADH
Add hydrogen Remove hydrogen FADH2 FAD
Add electron Remove an electron NADPH NADP+
Energy poor Energy rich

Alpha Particles

Alpha particles are attracted toward the negative electrostatic field, they are positively charged and have a very low penetrating power with a charge of +2.
Alpha particles result from the radioactive decay of heavy elements such as Uranium and Radium.
They consist of positively charged helium nuclei of Helium atoms(having 2 protons and two neutrons)

Beta Particles

Beta particles are attracted toward the positive electrostatic field, they are negatively charged and have a charge of -1.
The electron is emitted from the nucleus as a beta particle while the proton remains in the nucleus
Beta particles consist of high-speed electrons that travel in excess of 100,000 miles per second.
Beta particles are smaller then Alpha particles
Beta particles are electrons

Gamma rays

Gamma rays are not effected by an electrostatic field because they have no charge.
Gamma rays have no mass. They are a form of electromagnetic radiation similair to X-rays.
The rays are achieved from unstable atoms releasing energy to gain stability.
Surgeons use Gamma rays to treat deep cancerous items located in the brain, but what is nice is no incision is needed or anesthesia

Bioenergetics
Redox potentials: These provide a quantitative measure of oxidising or reducing power. Strong oxidising agents (like molecular oxygen) have positve redox potentials, good reducing agents have negative redox potentials. Electrons move spontaneously towards those compounds with the more positive redox potentials. The standard for the whole scale is pure hydrogen gas at 1 atmosphere pressure in contact with a platinised platinum electrode immersed in 1 molar acid. This combination is called a standard hydrogen electrode (SHE) and is defined to have a redox potential of zero.

Standard Redox Potentials (Eo) are measured with 50% oxidised form and 50% reduced form for the compound in question. [This is similar to pKa in the Henderson Hasselbach equation, which is equal to the pH value measured with 50% protonated buffer and 50% deprotonated buffer.] If the oxidation / reduction reaction involves protons (many do) then you need 1 molar acid present as well. This is a bit inconvenient for biological systems, so we often work with Eo' which is the redox potential measured at pH 7. This has a major effect: at pH 7 hydrogen gas has a redox potential of -420 mV.

The effective redox potential depends on the proportion of the oxidised and reduced forms. This can make a big difference: the NADPH / NADP couple (maintained by cells almost 100% in the reduced form) is a much better biological reducing agent than NADH / NAD (no more than 30% reduced under normal conditions) despite the fact that their standard redox potenials are identical.

E = Eo + R T ln( [oxidised form] / [reduced form] ) / z F
(E is measured in volts, R is the gas constant [8.31 joules / degree / mole], T is the absolute temperature, F is the faraday constant [96,500 coulombs / mole], z is the number of electrons involved in the reaction and ln denotes the natural logarithm. If natural logs are replaced by base 10 logarithms, these must be multiplied by a conversion factor of 2.303)

Note that it is meaningless to speak of the redox potential for a single compound in isolation: both the oxidised and the reduced forms must be defined, although in some cases (e.g. NADH) the oxidised form (NAD) is obvious. For hydrogen gas the oxidised form could be either protons or water (you must specify which) while for oxygen the reduced form is usually either hydroxyl ions or water, but it could be superoxide or peroxide, and this would affect the value of the redox potential. The num

The numerical value of 2.303 R T / F is about 60mV at 37oC. Can you use this information to calculate the change in redox potential for hydrogen gas, going from 1 molar acid in a standard hydrogen electrode to the biological standard at pH 7.0 ?

A few redox potentials can be measured directly (by inserting a platinum electode into a mixture of the oxidised and reduced forms, and completing the circuit through a salt bridge connected to a suitable reference electrode) but biological redox potentials are more commonly obtained indirectly by studying the equilibrium position of reactions where one participant has a known redox potential. When everything is present in equimolar amounts, a good reducing couple can reduce a weaker couple. However, a weak reducing agent could reduce a stonger reducing agent, providing that the weaker couple were largely in the reduced form, and the stronger couple largely in the oxidised form. Similar considerations apply to oxidising agents, with the argument appropriately inverted.
When an oxidising reagent interacts with a reducing agent, the difference between their respective redox potentials E is related to the Gibbs free energy G for the overall reaction:

G = - z F E
(where G is measured in joules, E is measured in volts, F is the faraday constant [96,500 coulombs / mole] and z is the number of electrons transfered in the reaction). A little care is needed with the arithmetical signs in deciding which number should be subtracted from what. Remember that G is negative if the overall reaction is favourable.

The numerous electron carriers that make up the respiratory chain are arranged in the approximate order of their redox potentials: the best reducing couples at the substrate end and the best oxidising couples at the oxygen end. At key points along the chain, the difference in redox potential between adjacent carriers provides the driving force to pump protons out of the matrix space and into the cytosol as part of the overall energy coupling mechanism.

The redox potentials for some important biological reactions are listed in the table:
Chemical reaction

Eo' (mV)

isocitrate => oxoglutarate + CO2 + 2e-1 -380

hydroxybutyrate => acetoacetate + 2e-1 -346

pyruvate + CoASH => acetyl-CoA + CO2 + 2e-1 ?

NADH => NAD+ + H+ + 2e-1 -320

lactate => pyruvate + 2e-1 -190

malate => oxaloacetate + 2e-1 -166

succinate => fumarate + 2e-1 +30

ubiquinol => ubiquinone + 2H+ + 2e-1 +4

cytochrome c2+ => cytochrome c3+ + e-1 +230

H2O => 1/2 O2 + 2H+ + 2e-1 +820

Nernst equation: This equation has various forms: do not be surprised if you find another version. The form most commonly encountered in biological systems relates the membrane potential to the concentrations of a diffusible ion in equilibrium with the potential on each side of the membrane: = 2.303 R T log( [Cin] / [Cout] ) / z F (where is the membrane potential in volts, R is the gas constant [8.31 joules / degree / mole], T is the absolute temperature, Cin and Cout are the two ionic concentrations, z is the electric charge on the ion, F is the faraday constant [96,500 coulombs / mole]. The factor of 2.303 arises from the use of log10 instead of natural logarithms.)

When the system reaches equilibrium, the tendency for the diffusible ion to escape through the membrane, down its concentration gradient, is exactly balanced by the electrical force attracting it in the opposite direction. The membrane potential changes sign if you reverse the orientation of the gradient, or if you substitute a diffusible anion for a diffusible cation keeping all the concentrations unchanged. Use your common sense to work this out: at equilibrium, the highest concentration of a positive ion will be on the negative side of the membrane, and vice versa.

At 37oC the value of 2.303 R T / z F is about 60mV so the membrane potential increases by 60mV for each tenfold increase in ion gradient. This is the same as the electrical output from a glass pH electrode (60mV per pH unit) which is not surprising because the voltage arises through the same mechanism.

Note that the ion must be able to cross the membrane with movement of charge for the above equation to apply, and it must have reached equilibrium with the electrical gradient. The Nernst equation does not apply to impermeant ions, or those which cross by an electroneutral exchange mechanism. No useful work can be obtained from an ion gradient subject to the Nernst equation (see below for a detailed discussion) but it is possible to obtain energy from an ion gradient which has NOT reached equilibrium, for example the sodium gradient across the plasmalemma, or the proton gradient across the mitochondrial inner membrane.

The Nernst equation can be used to calculate the mitochondrial membrane potential by measuring the distribution of a lipid soluble cation such as tetraphenylammonium, or rubidium plus valinomycin.

Gibbs free energy: (G) This is the useful work which can be obtained from a chemical reaction, and reflects its displacement from equilibrium. No useful work can be obtained from a reaction which has reached equilibrium, and in this case G = 0.

For a chemical reaction where a series of reactants Rn form a series of products Pm:

R1 + R2 + R3 + ... <=> P1 + P2 + P3 + ...
the precise relationship between G and the extent of reaction is given by the Gibbs equation:

G = G0 + R T ln ( [P1] . [P2] . [P3] ... / [R1] . [R2] . [R3] ...)
(where R is the gas constant [8.31 joules / degree / mole], T is the absolute temperature, and ln( ) is the natural logarithm of all the product concentrations multiplied together, then divided by all the reactant concentrations multiplied together). If you prefer to work with base 10 logarithms, you must multiply the whole of the last term above [starting with R T ln( ....) ] by 2.303

G0 is the standard free energy for the reaction, measured when all the reactants and products are present at 1 molar concentration.

This graph shows the relationship between G and reaction progress for two different chemical reactions. red reaction: G0 is positive

blue reaction: G0 is negative.

In both cases G is zero at equilibrium, but the red equilibrium position favours the reactants while the blue equilibrium favours the products.

The horizontal axis for this graph is R T ln ( [P1] . [P2] . [P3] ... / [R1] . [R2] . [R3] ...)

Since G is zero at equibrium, it follows that:

G0 = - R T ln ( [P1E] . [P2E] . [P3E] ... / [R1E] . [R2E] . [R3E] ...)

where the subscript E denotes the concentration of reactant or product present at equilibrium. Under these conditions, the terms inside the round brackets then represent the equilibrium constant, Keq for the overall reaction, leading to the important conclusion that:

G0 = - R T ln (Keq)
where Keq = [P1E] . [P2E] . [P3E] ... / [R1E] . [R2E] . [R3E] ...

Free energy of an ion gradient: No useful work can be obtained from ions subject to the Nernst equation (unless you alter the electrical gradient) because these ions have already reached equilibrium with the membrane potential, but energy can be obtained from the dissipation of a gradient for non-diffusible ions across the same membrane. There are two separable components to this free energy, one of which arises from the electrical gradient across the membrane, and the other from the difference in ionic concentrations. To calculate the free energy, imagine the ions performing some useful task as they escape across a tiny membrane separating two enormous reservoirs of effectively infinite capacity. Visualise moving one mole of the non-permeant ion from one side of the membrane to the other, keeping everything else (ionic concentrations, voltages) constant

G = z F + 2.303 R T log ( [Cout] / [Cin] )

(where G is the free energy, z is the charge on the ion, F is the faraday constant [96,500 coulombs / mole] and is the membrane potential, R is the gas constant [8.31 joules / degree / mole], T is the absolute temperature, Cin and Cout are the concentrations in the two compartments). The first term on the right hand side is like an electricity bill, basically amps x volts x time. The second term is a slightly modified form of the Gibbs equation, where the trapped ions are regarded as reactants, and the escaped ions are seen as products. G0 is zero because no energy is available from the concentration term if the ion has the same concentration on both sides of the membrane. The factor of 2.303 allows for the use of base 10 logarithms in place of natural logs.

The above equation allows almost infinite opportunity for getting the signs muddled up. Remember that G is negative for favourable reactions. You need the correct sign for the membrane potential, and the correct charge on the ion, and remember that the second concentration term may either add to or subtract from the first electrical term, depending on whether Cout is greater or less than Cin. Use your common sense to visualise what is happening, and then insert the correct signs as appropriate.

Henderson Hasselbach equation: This relates the pH of a buffer solution to the ionisation constant for the buffer, and the proportion of the protonated and non-protonated forms:

pH = pKa + log10 ([deprotonated form] / [protonated form])

It is easy to remember this: the greater the proportion of t

ADP
Cellular Concentration: 138 µ M
Definition:
ADP (adenosine diphosphate) is used as an intermediate throughout glycolysis. ATP hydrolyzes to produce ADP and free energy. ADP is made up of adenine, a ribose and a diphosphate unit

Product Chemical/Element/Mole Weight/Charge/ Magnetogyric ratio/rad T e-1s e-1
ATP C10 H16 N5 O12 P3 491.181823 42- 49391440000
ADP C10 H15 N5 O10 P2 427.201 34- 46358730000
ATP Turns into ADP
HO3P 79.9799 8- 2670070000
HO2P 63.980501 6- 3032710000

More Electrical reactions in Biological systems

FA anion diffuses laterally to UCP

Electrophorus electricus (electric eel)

The influence of electromagnetism on genes

Electromagnetism and your Tattoo

Skin Impedance Measurements for Acupuncture Research: Development of a Continuous Recording System

Agatha P. Colbert1, Jinkook Yun1, Adrian Larsen2, Tracy Edinger1, William L. Gregory1 and Tran Thong1,3
1Helfgott Research Institute, National College of Natural Medicine, Portland, OR, 2Miridia Technology Inc. Meridian, ID and 3Department of Biomedical Engineering, Oregon Graduate Institute, Beaverton, OR, USA

ABSTRACT
Skin impedance at acupuncture points (APs) has been used as a diagnostic/therapeutic aid for more than 50 years. Currently, researchers are evaluating the electrophysiologic properties of APs as a possible means of understanding acupuncture's mechanism. To comprehensively assess the diagnostic, therapeutic and mechanistic implications of acupuncture point skin impedance, a device capable of reliably recording impedances from 100 k to 50 M at multiple APs over extended time periods is needed. This article describes design considerations, development and testing of a single channel skin impedance system (hardware, control software and customized electrodes). The system was tested for accuracy against known resistors and capacitors. Two electrodes (the AMI and the ORI) were compared for reliability of recording over 30 min. Two APs (LU 9 and PC 6) and a nearby non-AP site were measured simultaneously in four individuals for 60 min. Our measurement system performed accurately (within 5%) against known resistors (580 k-10 M) and capacitors (10 nF-150 nF). Both the AMI electrode and the modified ORI electrode recorded skin impedance reliably on the volar surface of the forearm (r = 0.87 and r = 0.79, respectively). In four of four volunteers tested, skin impedance at LU 9 was less than at the nearby non-AP site. In three of four volunteers skin impedance was less at PC 6 than at the nearby non-AP site. We conclude that our system is a suitable device upon which we can develop a fully automated multi-channel device capable of recording skin impedance at multiple APs simultaneously over 24 h.

Continue reading this Cited Journal

The following elements are referred to as trace elements because they are required to, in very small amounts. They are, however, important elements found as part of enzymes or are required for enzyme activation. No percentages are given in the table Because the size is so small.

Cerium 40 mg 0.484 +2.17 x 10 e-7 (s) Helps to stimulate metabolism

Chlorine 95 g 0.95770 -7.2 x 10 e-9 (g) in salt and for chlorides

Chromium 14 mg 0.3635 +4.45 x 10 e-8 (s) Promotes glucose metabolism; helps regulate blood sugar.

Cobalt 3 mg 0.278 ferromagnetic Promotes normal red-blood cell formation.

Copper 72 mg 0.7718 -1.081 x 10 e-9 (s) Promotes normal red-blood cell formation; acts as a catalyst in storage and formation; acts as a catalyst in storage and release of iron to form hemoglobin; promotes connective tissue formation and central nervous system function.

Fluorine 2.6 g 0.5654 N>A> Prevents dental cares

Manganese 12 mg 0.373 +1.21 x 10 e-7 (s) Promotes normal growth and development; promotes cell function; helps many body enzymes generate energy.

Mercury 6 mg 1.266 -2.095 x 10 e-9 (1) It is in everything we eat

Molybdenum 5 mg 0.6715 +1,2 x 10 e-9 (s) Promotes normal growth and development and cell function.

Nickel 15 mg 1.03 ferromagnetic Helps to stimulate Metabolism

Niobium 1.5 mg 0.7054 +2.76 x 10 e-8 (s) it is found in the blood, bone, muscle, and liver

Silicon 1 g 0.41543 -1,8 x 10 e-9 (s) Is essential to humans

Selenium 15 mg or 10-65 mg 0.797 -4.0 x 10 e-9 (s) Complements Vitamin E to act as an efficient anti-oxidant.

Silver 2 mg 0.597 -2.27 x 10 e-9 (s) deals with ingestion

Strontium 320 mg 0.702 +1.32 x 10 e-8 (s) It resembles calcium in metabolism and behaviour and is absorbed by the body stored in the skeleton. This also happens with radioactive 90Sr which was produced by above ground nuclear expolsions in the 1950's and is widely disseminated in the enviroment.

Tungsten 0.02 mg 0.486 +4.0 x 10 e-9 (s) tungsten dust is a skin an eye irritant

Uranium 0.1 mg (range 0.01 - 0.4 mg) 0.8417 +2.16 x 10 e-8 (s) It is absorbed through the skin, can cause kidney damage

Vanadium 0.11 mg 0.0382 +6.28 x 10 e-8 (s) Plays role in metabolism of bones and teeth.

Yttrium 0.6 mg 0.775 +2.70 x 10 e-8 (s) N.A.

Zinc 2.3 g 0.5680 -2.20 x 10 e-9 (s) Maintains normal taste and smell; aids wound healing; helps synthesize DNA and RNA.

Chemical Elements
1.% of Body weight for 70 kg human
2.Neutron scattering length b/10e-12 cm Mass 3.magnetic susceptibility/ kg e-1 m e3:
4.Magnetogyric ratio / rad T e-1 s e-1 Description

Oxygen 65.0 43 kg 0.5803 +1.355 x 10 e-6 (g) -3.6264 x 10 e7 A major contributor to both organic and inorganic molecules; as a gas it is necessary for the production of cellular energy.

Carbon 18.5 16 kg 0.66460 -7.2 x 10 e-9 (g) 6.7263 x 10 e7 The main component of all organic molecules, i.e. carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

Hydrogen 10.0 7 kg -0.37390 -2.50 x 10 e-8 (g) 26.7510 x 10 e7 Another component of all organic molecules; in its ionic form it is influential on the pH of body fluids.

Nitrogen 3.0 1.8 kg 0.936 -5.4 x 10 e-9 (g) 1.9331 x 10 e7 An important structural component of all genetic material (nucleic acids).

Calcium 1.2 1.00 kg 0.476 +1.4 x 10 e-8 (s) -1.8001 x 10 e7 A building block of bones and teeth; its ionic form is essential in muscle contraction, impulse conduction in nerves, and blood clotting.

Phosphorus 1.0 780 g 0.513 -1.1 x 10 e-8 Pe4) ;-8.4 x 10 e-9 (red) 10.8289 x 10 e7 Joins calcium to contribute to bone crystalline structure; present in nucleic acids and ATP.

Potassium 0.4 140 g 0.367 +6.7 x 10 e-9 (s) 1.2483 x 10 e7 Its ionic form is the major cation (positive ions) in cells; necessary for conduction of nerve impulses and muscle contraction.

Sulfur 0.3 140 kg 0.2847 -6.09 x 10 e-9 (a) ; -5.83 x 10 e-9 (b) 2.0534 x 10 e7 Important component of muscle proteins

Sodium 0.2 100 g 0.358 +8.8 x 10 e-9 (s) 7.0761 x 10 e7 In ionic form is the most abundant anion (negative ion) outside the cell.

Magnesium 0.1 19 g 0.5375 +6.8 x 10 e-9 (s) 1.6375 x 10 e7 Found in bone and plays an important assisting role in many metabolic functions.

Iodine 0.1 12-20 mg 0.528 -4.40 x 10 e-9 (s) 5.3525 x 10 e7 Required in thyroid hormones which are the body's main metabolic hormones.

Iron 0.1 4.2 g 0.954 ferromagnetic 0.8661 x 10 e7 Basic building block of the hemoglobin molecule which

We are the Universe.
The four common elements are these

Fire = Our electrical energy
Earth = Our skin, vessel, Physical being
Air = Need to breathe to exist
Water = The human body is 75% water

I could not even begin to talk on this subject so I will let this nice list of over 1000 research papers on counsciousness do my talking
Ton of research Papers(warning will hurt the brain)
Stuart Hamerhoff
Read Entangled Minds by Dean Radin
Read Toward a science of Counsciousness by Stuart Hamerhoff