The Anglo Saxon Survival Guide

Fifteen centuries is a long time and the average diet of men and women can change a lot. What then was typical food and drink consumed by our ancestors who lived in these islands around the 6th to 7th century and during the centuries following?

Cereals: Barley, wheat, rye and oats were grown and made into bread and beer. A popular use was pottage: a stew of cereals, pulses and vegetables. This was called briw in Old English.

Drinks: Beer, which was made from malted barley, was the main beverage consumed. This was really a type of ale, meaning it did not contain hops (later centuries would classify beer as ale made with hops). Mead was also produced along with cider but more rarely. In Old English ale was calledalu or ealu.Wine was very uncommon and only available to wealthy individuals. Milk was occasionally drunk but more often used for cheese and butter.

Pulses: Beans and peas were commonly used in briw.

Vegetables: Typically used again in briw, these included leeks, onions, garlic, cabbage, turnips, beets, parsnips, carrots. They did not include potatoes - a much later 16th century import.

Herbs: Ginger, coriander, pepper and other herbs and spices were known, but were mainly used in medicines.

Fruit: Very commonly used in diet, although often dried or boiled and stored for later use; these included apples, pears, plums, cherries, rasberries, strawberries and blackberries. Nuts such as hazelnuts were eaten.

Eggs: were an easily available food which also included ducks and goose eggs as well as hens.

Meat and Fish: Pretty much all of an animal would be consumed. Red meat was rarer in the diet; pork and chicken being much more common. Game and fowl was eaten much more than today. Shellfish, such as oysters, were a standard part of the diet: much more than is the case in our day, where they are considered an exotic luxury item (although maybe not as much as 20 years ago). Eels and other fish were often eaten on fast days when meat was off the menu.

Read more: For those wishing to find out more about food eaten at this time period, I refer you toAnglo-Saxon Food by Ann Hagen (published by Anglo-Saxon books).

I mention a number of Anglo-Saxon meals in The Amber Treasure

Milk, butter and cheese represented a significant part of the Anglo Saxon diet. They were also used as payments and dues: making up part of the Feorm handed over to a lord or King. Milk was frequently an ingredient in medicines as the basis for drinks, whilst butter was occasionally used to make oily poultices and cheese consumed to treat asthma.

Cows, Goats and Sheep

In Anglo-Saxon times, milk was frequently used not only from cows, but also sheep and goats. Milk from these animals is mentioned in many sources. One example listed the rights of a cowherd to the milk from a cow for seven days after she had calved; a shepherd to the milk of his herd for a week after the equinox; finally a goatherd could have the milk from his goats for a periodafter Martinmass and to a share of the whey beforehand

What is clear from this is that not only did milk get used from all these animals, but also just how tightly the Saxon's lives were regulated by reference to rules laid down by Kings and others and to the dates and calendars of the year.

The animals were typically looked after in the fields by men who often milked their beasts.

A sour taste in the mouth

Even in the modern era we struggle to keep milk from going sour, especially in the warm summer months. Over a thousand years ago they had no refrigeration and the problem of sour milk was very pertinent. Indeed, such trouble did it cause, that St Columba once rebuked a follower for not casting out the devil at the bottom of the milking pail!

Various remedies were suggested, including putting bundles of herbs in the pail and hanging the pail up or standing it on a stool for a week. Perhaps the herbs had some antiseptic effect or maybe the pail just dried out

Butter

Making butter and cheese was usually done by the womenfolk. Indeed some charters and codes of law specify the payments these women had to make to sell their products at the markets around Christmas: e.g. a penny. This suggested it was common place for these women to be selling the cheeses at market.

The Saxons did not usually drink cream. Instead this became the basis of butter. The rest of the milk would be separated from the cream and the cream churned to make butter. Butter was usually salted for, as with all dairy products its life was short, so this helped to preserve it. This was accomplished but mixing the salt through the butter then pressing it down between layers of salt in a barrel to keep air away.

Cheese

The Saxons were quite advanced at the production of cheeses.

Walk milk would be curdled to make junket which was then cut up. The lumps of curds would make the cheese. The liquid whey was sometimes used for more butter.

The Saxons relied on different methods to curdle milk. Firstly, as they used wooden utensils which were not sterilised, the build up of bacteria upon them would assist this process. They also had access to a natural curdling agent still used today: rennet. This is produced in the stomachs of mammals e.g. cows. It is also present in certain plants such as thistles and safflower. Vinegar could also be used to help curdle milk.

Fresh cheeses were usually eaten by the poor, whereas mature cheeses, which needed more careful preservation, fetched a higher price making them mostly consumed by the wealthier members of society.

Although blue cheeses are mentioned in French records there is little evidence for them being made in quantity by the Anglo-Saxons.

For the Anglo Saxons the main meal of day was lunch time, whereas the evening meal more often broth (Briw)

A specialist Cook would be usually be a man: in Old English the word for Cook is a male word.

General methods of cooking

Fuel:

The cutting and gathering of wood was a summer occupation. Any crops would be growing and need little attention, but it was not yet harvest time. The villagers would take carts out into the nearby forests. Peasants would often have a "right to gather" fallen branches in woods. Apart from their own needs fire wood bundles were often part of their Feorm or due they had to deliver to their Lord.

Where it was naturally available coal might be used as fuel and charcoal was certainly produced, but fire wood was by far the most commonly consumed fuel.

Fire Making and ovens:

Most men and women would have their own set of fire steels, flints and tinder boxes. There are occasionally found in pagan graves. Dependant on what was easily available; the hearth was lined with clay tiles or stones and was heart of each house. Commonly this would be a fire pit in the centre of the room. Smoke would escape through a hole in the roof or just be filtrating out through the thatch.

Sometimes heated stones were dropped in pots of water to boil it as a prelude to boiling food.

Larger brick ovens would often have been located in separate buildings and burnt wood faggots. Sometimes they would consist of a chamber for fire with flues to carry hot air to another chamber where the food was cooked.

Earth Oven: This was created from a pit dug in the earth. Heated stones would be laid in them. Then meat covered with clay and leaves was laid in the pit and the food covered over with hot stones

Cooking Utensils

Pots and Cauldrons could be made from metals such as Iron, Bronze, Copper or Tin. Clay pots were used but soapstone was popular as it was tough and easier to clean than other crockery.

Methods of Cooking

Boiling and stewing was main method used by the Anglo Saxons. Often salted meat was later boiled.

e.g. Goose put in floured bag with milk or butter and lowered into cauldron. Beans, barley and vegetables might be in other bags in the same cauldron.

Roasting and Grilling was used for fresh meat and fish

Griddles and frying pans were in use e.g for cooking flat breads or omelettes.

Bread

For unleavened bread, flat bread and round cakes this was prepared by mixing meal (ground barley, wheat etc) with salt. This would then be cooked on a griddle or upon the hot heath stones near the fire.

Adding yeast produced leavened bread. Yeast could obtained from the dregs that remained after brewing ale - or even some forms of mould.

Bread was cooked in a pan, upon hearth stones or in the oven. Ovens could be single chambers or two chambers. In the single chamber you put in wooden faggots and burnt them. When the faggots where ash you would take out the ash and put in the dough. This bread would be blackened and discoloured so you would have to cut or break off the crust.

Alternatively, you could cover the bread with an upturned pot and then pile the hot embers ash on top.

Another method was the two chamber oven. Wood would be burnt in one chamber and the bread cooked in the adjacent chamber, which was heated by hot air from the other.

The preparation for warfare, the rituals surrounding it and the actual conduct of battle were central to the world view of the Anglo-Saxons. Even if a man never fought a battle or the land was at peace it was expected that men would train to be ready. Just like today, reputation very important to men at this time. Reputation was gained by prowess in battle, by recalling the deeds of one's ancestors and kin and by the creation of and the attitude of hereditary allies and enemies

Some concepts:
All warriors must be freemen. The right to bear arms was central to the status of a freeman in the way that one aspect of slavery was that they were banned from carrying weapons.

The Anglo-Saxons believed that a warrior or leader had secret knowledge he used to protect his men. The leader kept a band of men around him - his hearth company. They would eat with him, sleep in his halls, go where he went and fight for him. They were called thanes and they had a duty to protect and serve him

Some words:
Geoguo: a youth - the young warriors
Duguo: older veterans
In battle, older veterans stood at the rear - trying to bolster the men, the youths were in the middle whilst the seasoned warriors stood at the front.

Rituals

Gifts:
Another word: Gift stool (Grefstol) - Lord sat on it to dispense gifts
The kings gave out gifts to reward his followers and maintain their loyalty. Leaders might hold special gift days. Maybe these were celebrated on days linked to his to his predecessor's triumphs to remind his followers of his inheritance.

Followers would promise duty and loyalty and leaders would give gifts: weapons, armour, rings, drinking vessels or land.

The value of an object was much more than just wealth: there would be sentimental value. The history of the object was critical i.e. who owned it before, when and for what was it used.

Ale Ritual
This was very symbolic and carried out in a defined manner.
The leader would hold feasts and provide ale and mead. The followers would drink from horns, goblets and beakers. Warriors would stand up individually and would be greeted by the leader. Then their valour and deeds would be celebrated.

The warriors would boast (Beot). This would involved committing themselves to perform a deed. This might be promising to serve their lord, never flinch in battle, slay a foe or die in attempt etc. They NEVER promised success - that was considered up to fate.

The Warrior and his king might embrace or kiss. The warrior might lay his head or hands on the lord's knee

Ritual Combat
In the case of perceived insult or loss of honour, a challenge to single combat could be refused but would lead to loss of face and public ridicule. The Anglo - Saxons had a item called a scorn pole which could be put up outside their house.
They could expect to be shamed and excluded from society.
Some Words:
Einvigi: single combat - this was a less formal duel probably just outside a hall.
Holmgangi "going to an island". One method was to go to secluded spot. Often this was a ritual site used many times in the past.Often they would peg out area of ground to fight inside using hazel sticks. These duels would continue until the death of one or their incapacity. The combatants would take alternate strokes - which they could attempt to deflect with their sword or shield.

Sword Rituals
The sword was a potent symbol to the Anglo Saxons. A promise made on a sword was taken very seriously. Swearing of oaths was often done on a bare blade. The family sword was put in hands of new born sons to show their inheritance and by so doing, the luck of the family was passed on. The marriage oath might be made in front of naked sword.
Often a mother passed on the sword to a son: ie a father would give sword to a daughter to hand on to her son

Beasts of Battle/ Gods of war
Warriors would carry the motif of a god or an associated beast on their equipment. This is particularly so in the case of Kings and leaders and is mentioned in poems.
Here are some of the gods their symbols:
Raven: Cult of Woden (also sometimes a wolf)
Boars: Freyr
Spear: Odin - Tiw. He was the god worshipped by leaders.
Hammer: Thor. He was the god of the rank and file.

In researching the traditions and rituals of warfare for this blog as well as my novel The Amber Treasure I consulted these books about Warfare:

The English Warrior: Stephen Pollington - Anglo Saxon Books
Warriors of the Dark Ages: Jenniffer Laing - Sutton
Anglo Saxon Weapons and Warfare: Richard Underwood - Tempus

No Ipods, no Internet, no TV, radio and not even newspapers and books (unless you were wealthy ). What do you do to keep from getting bored? Here are some ways that the Anglo Saxons had fun in the dark evenings.

Indoor entertainment and feasts

There was a high degree of ceremony connected with feasts. It would start outside the hall. A horn was blown to summon the guests to table and the host would great them at the door where there would be a hand washing ceremony at the door. The doors were shut to keep gate crashers away!

Then the guests would enter and sit at benches lining long tables. The king's warriors or thegns could sit in his halls but only men of high rank would sit at the high table. Women of high rank would be cup bearers and pour drinks for the king and lords. In the Christian era bread was blessed and then broken in remembrance of the Eucharist or holy communion/ mass.

Feasts might go on all day and night: there were even some 3 day feasts.

It was considered a serious matter to commit an offense or undertake violence at a feast

Entertainment at feasts: These might include playing the harp, lyre, horn, trumpet, drums flute or cymbals. There would be accompanying signing: often songs recalling battles.

They enjoyed dancing and juggling, poets and stories and the asking of riddles. Here is a typical Anglo-Saxon riddle from the Exeter book which has many riddles. Some are obscure and some lewd and suggestive. This one is straighter forward.
On the wave a miracle: water turned to bone.
What is the answer? See at the end of this section.

Games:

A board game
Above: a game of Hnefatafl
The Anglo-Saxons were fond of dice games. Dice were made from the knuckle bones of animals such as pigs. Boardgames were also popular and often recalled battles in a symbolic way. An example is Hnefatafl which is played using stone pieces on a carved wooden board. One player's pawns coming from the corners of the board would attack the other side's kings and pawns which were positioned in the centre. The player with the King would be trying to get him off the board (to escape from the battle) whilst the other player would try and trap him. These un-even games - where the two sides were of different sizes and abilities - were very prevalent in Anglo-Saxon and later Viking cultures.

Outdoor Sports:
Horse racing was mentioned in Beowulf in 8th century and by the writer Bede in 7th. There are records of dog racing, hunting, ice skating, swimming, falconry, hawking, acrobatics wrestling and gymnastics.

Answer to the riddle:
On the wave a miracle: water turned to bone.
Ice or iceberg.