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Computers, Technology And The Internet

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History Of Computers

Uninformed researchers of computer (computador) history would probably note the first computer in the mid 1930`s. In reality, this history dates nearly 2000 years ago with the invention of the abacus where the user programmed beads using formulated constructs.

Although many historians caution against the use of the word computer (computador) except to define 20th century computers, a broader understanding illuminates an instrument designed by a Frenchman and which functioned as a calculator and was designed for a tax collector in the 1600`s. Improvements to this calculator continued through the 19th century.

Similar work was underway in England and with the support of the government a `mechanical` calculator was invented. It was powered by steam and supported a fixed program for its use. This calculator went through many changes until an automatic calculator was invented. Following this flurry of discovery and invention, little changed until the early 1900`s when detailed mechanical and transportation work required complex mathematical calculations (especially calculus).

Two Census Bureau workers began to look for a means of accurately calculating information. They conceived the idea of a punch card which would be inserted into the computer (computador), read, and stored. The greatest advantage of these still slow moving machines was the ability to store large amounts of information with ease and accuracy.

The early 1940`s and the imminent World War, brought the military into the computer era (computador). New weapons requiring computer technology for effectiveness, were needed, designed and produced. These were large floor model machines and utilized the floor space of an average one family home (about 2,000 square feet). One independent computer (computador) was not adequate and a means was found to link computers which produced a more accurate and clear channel of information. These devices were not only cumbersome but they required rewiring and rechanneling for each program. Greater inventions were in progress. These new computers (computador) would be equipped with memory capacity and worker faster than any in existence at the time.

In 1947, the first modern programmable computers (computador) were designed. They contained RAM (Random Access Memory) and made it possible to access information in seconds. This technology continued to be tested and improved into the 1950`s when magnetic core memory and a transistor circuit element were discovered. These increased the memory capacity and functionality of the computers (computador). On the down side the cost to operate these machines was astronomical. By nearly sheer determination alone, these devices evolved into amazing machines able to work with a number of programs simultaneously while giving the impression that only one program was in use.

As recently as the 1960`s computers (computador) were more available and the price had become nearly reasonable for businesses. Their use however, was confined mostly to mathematically based operations such as billing, accounting, and payroll. One of the major purchasers of these devices was hospitals which stored date from patients, inventory, billing, treatments, and the like.

By the 1980`s smaller individual computers (computador) were being produced. Technology continued to astound the general public as the microchip came into existence permitting personal computers to be sold with accompanying program disks for downloading. A glance around most medium to large companies would reveal many desk top computers in use.

It would be impossible to track the history of computers (computador) without acknowledging Apple Computer and IBM for their leading edge and evolving technology. Radio Shack coupled with Apple Computer (computador) produced video games for the computer (a move from the arcade).

The ability for businesses and individuals to access the worldwide web gave birth to new and innovative marketing and communication with inquirers and/or clients. Today it is inconceivable that one attempt to research something on line and not find multiple references there. The momentum has only continued to mount and new upgrades are available nearly by the day.

This article is under GNU FDL license and can be distributed without any previous authorization from the author. However the author's name and all the URLs (links) mentioned in the article and biography must be kept.

History Of The Internet

The fundamental idea of the internet first came about in a paper that was published in 1960 by J.C.R. Licklider. In it, he articulated the concept of a wide network of computers, and some of the uses that would arise from such a network. Mr. Licklider had ideas that would shape the powerful tool that we use so frequently in modern times.

2 years later, Licklider was hired by the U.S. Government's Department of Defense. Specifically, he worked in a branch called DARPA. At that point, they had 3 terminals in their office, and several men worked together on the technical concepts that would allow them to network the computers.

Although they established some groundbreaking computer protocol, their small network was barely a baby step towards what we have today. Computer scientists around the world worked on their own computer networks, trading ideas and information amongst themselves. Networks grew to be more complex, and to contain more computer terminals.

Eventually, the small handful of network owners began to theorize about what sort of possibilities there would be if every single computer network was interlinked into one giant network. Men from DARPA and Stanford University worked on the problem of how so many individual networks could be merged. Eventually they determined that the key was to establish a universal protocol. In order to be a part of the large network, individuals would have to follow the protocol.

Stanford researcher Vincent Serf wrote the "Specification of Internet Transmission Control Program" - which, coincidentally, was the first known use of the word "internet". It also established guidelines known as the TCP/IP. DARPA's network approved this protocol, and it became the only acceptable way to transfer data within its network. The standards were provided to all of the other major networks at the time, and one by one they converted their machinery to the new protocol. Because of this universal compliance, almost any two networks could be joined, no matter what their type was.

The phrase "The Internet" began to be used in reference to a sort of mainframe of inter-connected networks. They could be easily accessed by any machine using the proper protocol. Data could be easily transferred using existing infrastructure - in fact, countless satellite links and phone routing stations were converted to the TCP/IP protocol to further the information-carrying ability of the internet.

Throughout the 80s, the internet began to grow into a worldwide phenomenon. Naturally, almost every country had its own computer enthusiasts and research programs with their own networks established. Word spread of the universal TCP/IP protocol that was connecting computers across the world, and foreign networks enthusiastically adopted these standards. This globalization only contributed more to the spread of the internet, as brain power from across the world was united to optimize the networks and establish the best methods of data sharing.

To this day, TCP/IP remains nearly universal, being used by every internet-compatible computer as well as a huge number of private networks. We can certainly do more with the network than the pioneers of the 80s, but without their work we could still be sending telegrams instead of emails.

All About Linux

What is Linux?

Linux is an operating system created by Linus Torvalds during his days as a student at the University of Helsinki. Linux was created and meant to be used as an option or substitute to the other operating systems being used by computer users, like MS-DOS, Windows, Mac OSX, etc. Linux is not a program or a set of programs like a word processor of an office suite.

A Brief History

While studying at the University of Helsinki, Linus used a version of the UNIX operating system called 'Minix'. Several requests for modifications and improvements for the operating system were being sent by Linus and other users to Andrew Tanenbaum, Minix's creator, but he felt that they weren't necessary. Therefore, Linus decided to create his own operating system; one that would take into account the users' comments and suggestions for improvements.

A "kernel" is the focal point of any operating system. Without going into great detail, the kernel tells the CPU to do what you want the program or application that you're using to do. An operating system would not exist without a kernel. However, a kernel is also useless without any programs or applications.

In 1991, two critical situations evolved that would serve as the starting point for Linux. A kernel was already created by Linus, but he had no programs to use; some programs were available from GNU and Richard Stallman, but they had no working kernel. So Linux was born by combining the programs from Richard and GNU in Cambridge, Massachusetts, with the kernel provided by Linus in Helsinki, Finland. It was a lot of ground to cover and far to travel, so the Internet became the primary method of getting Linus' kernel together with the GNU programs. It can almost be said that Linux is an operating system that came to life on the Internet.

Not For Everybody at First

Other software companies will sell you software contained in a CD or a set of floppies, together with a brief instruction booklet, and in half an hour or probably even less, you could install a fully functional operating system on your computer. You only needed to know how to read and follow instructions in order to install it. This was what those companies had in mind when they developed their operating systems. However, when Linux was developed by Linus, this factor wasn't initially considered. Later on, Red Hat and other likeminded companies made it their purpose to develop Linux to the point where it could be easily installed just like any other operating system in the market, by anyone who can follow simple instructions, and today we can definitely say that they have succeeded in this particular purpose.

Linux Today

Nowadays, there is a great deal of favorable reactions from computer users regarding Linux. The fact that Linux has proven to be impressively stable and versatile, especially as a network server, surely has played a big part in this popularity. Down-time is minor or insignificant when Linux is installed and used as a web server or in corporate networks. Many cases have been reported wherein Linux-powered servers have been functioning smoothly for even more than a year without needing to re-boot, and when it had to be taken down, it was only for a brief period for maintenance purposes. Its cost effectiveness has become to be one of its strongest selling points. Linux can be installed and run on either a home PC or a network server, without having to spend as much as it would be for other software packages. More reliability and less cost - it's ideal.

All About Windows

In November of 1985, Microsoft Corporation introduced a new operating system named Windows as an extension of their previous system software called MS-DOS. The development of Windows came about with a rising interest in graphical user interfaces (GUI) by the average computer user.

Windows has come to dominate the operating system market overtaking Mac OS and Mac OS X. It was reported in 2004 that Windows was loaded on approximately ninety percent of the computers in the world.

Even though Windows took the operating system market by storm, it wasn't without its share of bugs and problems. This caused many people to lose faith in Windows, but Microsoft was quick to come up with fixes to the problems and newer versions of Windows ran smoothly with few problems.

The biggest advantage to Windows as a solid operating system is the GUI technology that Windows offers. This means that besides being visually pleasing, even the most inexperienced computer users are able to easily adapt to Windows and make it possible for anyone to use a personal computer.

Early versions of Windows showed some problems with security. In fact, even the Microsoft computers were subject to security breaches. Microsoft took this issue very seriously, and newer versions of Windows (those after NT) come with built-in security features that make systems much safer. These features include some basic virus protection as well as anti-spyware features.

Most computers today run on Windows XP, but earlier versions of Windows can still be found on some older computers. Windows 95 and 98 are still used by some users because older computers are not able to accommodate the newer Windows XP. Users with older versions of Windows can still run some programs but with limited functionality.

Almost all computer software programs are designed to be compatible with Windows. Microsoft has also been a forerunner in developing other programs that make personal computing as well as business computing easier. Microsoft Office is the premier business program offering word processing, spreadsheets, and publishing capabilities in one software package.

The advent of Windows as an operating system was a huge milestone in the computer industry. They continue to come up with new products that are bigger and better than the ones before. The most recent release is Windows Vista that promises flashy graphics and tools that users have been asking for.

Using Windows is easy, fast, and efficient. It is easily recognizable, and with so many computers running Windows as an operating system, you can operate almost any computer with ease. The invention of Windows as an operating system has been a great advantage for computer users everywhere.