Robots And More

Robotics Institute of America
Countries have different definitions of what it means to be a robot. For example, the Robotics Institute of America (RIA) defines a robot as:

A re-programmable multi-functional manipulator designed to move materials, parts, tools, or specialized devices through variable programmed motions for the performance of a variety of tasks.

They recognize four classes of robot:

A: Handling devices with manual control.
B: Automated handling devices with predetermined cycles.
C: Programmable, servo-controlled robots with continuous of point-to-point trajectories.
D: Robots capable of Type C specifications which also acquire information from the environment for intelligent motion.

Japanese Robot Association
In contrast, the Japanese Robot Association (JARA) recognizes as many as six classes:

1: Manual - Handling Devices actuated by an operator.
2: Fixed Sequence Robot.
3: Variable-Sequence Robot with easily modified sequence of control.
4: Playback Robot, which can record a motion for later playback.
5: Numerical Control Robots with a movement program to teach it tasks manually.
6: Intelligent robot: that can understand its environment and able to complete the task despite changes in the operation conditions.

International Organisation for Standardisation
Such variation makes it difficult to compare numbers of robots in different countries. Japan has so many robots partly because it counts more machines as robots. For this reason, the International Organisation for Standardisation gives a single definition to be used when counting the number of robots in each country. International standard ISO 8373 defines a robot as "an automatically controlled, reprogrammable, multipurpose, manipulator programmable in three or more axes, which may be either fixed in place or mobile for use in industrial automation applications."

If robots are to work effectively in homes and other non-industrial environments, the way they are instructed to perform their jobs, and especially how they will be told to stop will be of critical importance. The people who interact with them may have little or no training in robotics, and so any interface will need to be extremely intuitive. Science fiction authors also typically assume that robots will eventually communicate with humans by talking, gestures and facial expressions, rather than a command-line interface. Although speech would be the most natural way for the human to communicate, it is quite unnatural for the robot. It will be quite a while before robots interact as naturally as the fictional C3P0.

Speech Recognition: Interpreting the continuous flow of sounds coming from a human, in real time, is a difficult task for a computer, mostly because of the great variability of speech. The same word, spoken by the same person may sound different depending on local acoustics, volume, the previous word, whether or not the speaker has a cold, etc.. It becomes even harder when the speaker has a different accent. Nevertheless, great strides have been made in the field since Davis, Biddulph, and Balashek designed the first "voice input system" which recognized "ten digits spoken by a single user with 100% accuracy" in 1952. Currently, the best systems can recognise continuous, natural speech, up to 160 words per minute, with an accuracy of 95%.

Gestures: One can imagine, in the future, explaining to a robot chef how to make a pastry, or asking directions from a robot police officer. On both of these occasions, making hand gestures would aid the verbal descriptions. In the first case, the robot would be recognising gestures made by the human, and perhaps repeating them for confirmation. In the second case, the robot police officer would gesture to indicate "down the road, then turn right". It is quite likely that gestures will make up a part of the interaction between humans and robots. A great many systems have been developed to recognise human hand gestures.

Facial expression: Facial expressions can provide rapid feedback on the progress of a dialog between two humans, and soon it may be able to do the same for humans and robots. A robot should know how to approach a human, judging by their facial expression and body language. Whether the person is happy, frightened or crazy-looking affects the type of interaction expected of the robot. Likewise, a robot like Kismet can produce a range of facial expressions, allowing it to have meaningful social exchanges with humans.

Personality: Many of the robots of science fiction have personality, and that is something which may or may not be desirable in the commercial robots of the future. Nevertheless, researchers are trying to create robots which appear to have a personality: i.e. they use sounds, facial expressions and body language to try to convey an internal state, which may be joy, sadness or fear. One commercial example is Pleo, a toy robot dinosaur, which can exhibit several apparent emotions.

The actuators are the 'muscles' of a robot; the parts which convert stored energy into movement. By far the most popular actuators are electric motors, but there are many others, some of which are powered by electricity, while others use chemicals, or compressed air.

Motors: By far the vast majority of robots use electric motors, of which there are several kinds. DC motors, which are familiar to many people, spin rapidly when an electric current is passed through them. They will spin backwards if the current is made to flow in the other direction.
Stepper Motors: As the name suggests, stepper motors do not spin freely like DC motors, they rotate in steps of a few degrees at a time, under the command of a controller. This makes them easier to control, as the controller knows exactly how far they have rotated, without having to use a sensor. Therefore they are used on many robots and CNC machining centres.
Piezo Motors: A recent alternative to DC motors are piezo motors, also known as ultrasonic motors. These work on a fundamentally different principle, whereby tiny piezoceramic legs, vibrating many thousands of times per second, walk the motor round in a circle or a straight line. The advantages of these motors are incredible nanometre resolution, speed and available force for their size. These motors are already available commercially, and being used on some robots.
Air Muscles: The air muscle is a simple yet powerful device for providing a pulling force. When inflated with compressed air, it contracts by up to 40% of its original length. The key to its behaviour is the braiding visible around the outside, which forces the muscle to be either long and thin, or short and fat. Since it behaves in a very similar way to a biological muscle, it can be used to construct robots with a similar muscle/skeleton system to an animal. For example, the Shadow robot hand uses 40 air muscles to power its 24 joints.
Electroactive Polymers: These are a class of plastics which change shape in response to electrical stimulation. They can be designed so that they bend, stretch or contract, but so far there are no EAPs suitable for commercial robots, as they tend to have low efficiency or are not robust. Indeed, all of the entrants in a recent competition to build EAP powered arm wrestling robots, were beaten by a 17 year old girl. However, they are expected to improve in the future, where they may be useful for microrobotic applications.
Elastic nanotubes are a promising, early-stage experimental technology. The absence of defects in nanotubes enables these filaments to deform elastically by several percent, with energy storage levels of perhaps 10J per cu. cm for metal nanotubes. Human biceps could be replaced with an 8mm diameter wire of this material. Such compact "muscle" might allow future robots to outrun and outjump humans.

Walking is a difficult and dynamic problem to solve. Several robots have been made which can walk reliably on two legs, however none have yet been made which are as robust as a human. Typically, these robots can walk well on flat floors, and can occasionally walk up stairs. None can walk over rocky, uneven terrain. Some of the methods which have been tried are:

Zero Moment Point (ZMP) Technique: is the algorithm used by robots such as Honda's ASIMO. The robot's onboard computer tries to keep the total inertial forces (the combination of earth's gravity and the acceleration and deceleration of walking), exactly opposed by the floor reaction force (the force of the floor pushing back on the robot's foot). In this way, the two forces cancel out, leaving no moment (force causing the robot to rotate and fall over). However, this is not exactly how a human walks, and the difference is quite apparent to human observers, some of whom have pointed out that ASIMO walks as if it needs the lavatory. ASIMO's walking algorithm is not static, and some dynamic balancing is used (See below). However, it still requires a smooth surface to walk on.

Hopping: Several robots, built in the 1980s by Marc Raibert at the MIT Leg Laboratory, successfully demonstrated very dynamic walking. Initially, a robot with only one leg, and a very small foot, could stay upright simply by hopping. The movement is the same as that of a person on a pogo stick. As the robot falls to one side, it would jump slightly in that direction, in order to catch itself. Soon, the algorithm was generalised to two and four legs. A bipedal robot was demonstrated running and even performing somersaults. A quadruped was also demonstrated which could trot, run, pace and bound. For a full list of these robots, see the MIT Leg Lab Robots page.

Dynamic Balancing: A more advanced way for a robot to walk is by using a dynamic balancing algorithm, which is potentially more robust than the Zero Moment Point technique, as it constantly monitors the robot's motion, and places the feet in order to main stability. This technique was recently demonstrated by Anybots' Dexter Robot, which is so stable, it can even jump.

Passive Dynamics: Perhaps the most promising approach being taken is to use the momentum of swinging limbs for greater efficiency. It has been shown that totally unpowered humanoid mechanisms can walk down a gentle slope, using only gravity to propel themselves. Using this technique, a robot need only supply a small amount of motor power to walk along a flat surface or a little more to walk up a hill. This technique promises to make walking robots at least ten times more efficient than ZMP walkers, like ASIMO.
More about ASIMO here!

LEGO ® Mindstorms NXT Robot Kit $249.95

Bow to the next generation of LEGO Mindstorms - now, with a 32-bit processor, redesigned sensors, Bluetooth and more.Features:LEGO's newest robot-building kit, with greatly improved functionality32-bit command center with large LCD, USB 2.0 and Bluetooth interfaces that allow robots to walk, talk and interact with their environmentTechnic blocks ("studless legos") create a more human, less boxy lookIntuitive GUI and drag-and-drop icons are PC- and Mac-friendlyRedesigned touch and light sensors, new sound sensor and ultrasonic sensorNow with three motors - redesigned for smoother, more reliable operation6-wire digital cables for more precise connections5 main themes (8 different models) - Vehicle: Roverbot, Animal, Scorpio; Machine: Robotic Arm; Human: Humanoid; Gadgets: Clock, Music, Game and MoversModels are all built within the LEGO Technic SystemIncludes:571 piecesQuickstart Guide helps you build a robot ready for action within 30 minutesModel-specific building instructions, tips and tricks, testing methods and programming optionsEasy-to-use softwareTest panelThe power of the LEGO building system, an intelligent command center and easy-to-use, drag and drop programming software unleash the power of your robot-building imagination.Safety warning: This product contains small parts that may present a choking hazard for young children.

Remote Control Robosapien V2 Media $249.99

Enter the future of robotics - where media is integral to the mix - with this evolved, updated version of the advanced Robosapian Media. Complete multi-media experienceHead-mounted camera takes photographsFull-color integrated LCD screenBuilt-in speakers on armorPlays movies, videos and displays photosPlay video games on screenCreate unique movements with included softwareDances to a chosen music track with custom choreographySight, sound and touch sensorsIR vision to detect and avoid obstaclesTracks moving objectsMultiple personalities: RS Media, Service Bot 3000, Space Bot and Billy-Joe Sapien PC connectivity via USBComplete with PC software to create and edit your own personalitiesIncludes multi-system IR remote controlThe perfect fusion of cutting edge technology and outrageous personality, it's the ultimate robot for the media era.Safety warning: This product contains small parts that may present a choking hazard for young children.

Discovery Remote Control Roboquad $79.99

Enter the sci-fi world of robots with this futuristic blend of artificial intelligence, infrared vision and autonomous action. Anthropod-like robot has advanced intelligence and awarenessSound, light and infrared sensors let Roboquad respond to his environmentInfrared vision sensor "sees" movement up to 10 feet awayRoboquad's LED eyes automatically illuminate anything in its path when the ambient light turns darkCan search for and navigate doorways and table edgesThree levels of aggression, activity and awarenessResponds to its surroundings based on user-set levels4 multi-jointed legs rotate 360° for the ultimate in agility and maneuverabilityCan be toggled to guard a perimeterProgram up to 40 movements in succession and replay sequence laterRoboquad walks easily on carpet or wood floorsExtended battery lifeTake this robot-of-the-future for a spin around your home and watch its advanced intelligence and multiple sensors interact with its surroundings.Safety warning: This product contains small parts that may present a choking hazard for young children.

The Award-Winning Remote-Controlled Robot Kit. $299.95

Winner of the Best Innovation of Show award at the Consumer Electronics Show, this is the robot kit that allows you to build an unlimited number of moving models from over 300 parts. Endorsed by For Inspiration and Recognition of Science and Technology (FIRST), and used by high school and college robotics classes, the kit includes four motors, 24 gears, powder-coated steel braces, an extendable arm and grasping claw, six rubber tires, and a digital camera, allowing you to create a variety of custom configurations, including a six-wheeled rescue machine using the arm and claw, an all-terrain tank, and a geological survey craft. This limited-edition version has a belt-driven tank tread kit and an additional motor and joint that allow the extendable arm to rotate. Motors that operate the gears and wheels, the extendable arm, and the digital camera are controlled by a six-channel radio transmitter with a 150' range. The digital camera can be mounted to any vehicle you create, allowing you to wirelessly transmit 640 x 480 color video directly to your television. Includes ten AA rechargeable batteries and a battery charger. Ages 14 and up. The manufacturer has confirmed that this item meets U.S. Federal toy safety standards for lead. 13 1/2" H x 13"W x 18 1/2" D. (5 lbs.)

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The Voice-Activated R2-D2. $119.95

This motorized replica of the headstrong little "droid" from the "Star Wars" films responds to voice commands, navigates rooms and hallways, and makes any home feel like it has been transported to a galaxy far, far away. R2 obeys more than 40 voice commands ("Turn around!" "Move forward two units!") and he plays games like tag, using an infra-red sensor to search for people in a room. His sensor helps him follow behind you, or it can be set to detect motion, turning R2 into a room sentry that sounds an alarm when a secured area is invaded. R2's lights, swiveling dome top, and distinctive happy and sad sounds faithfully mimic the real thing, right down to his occasional "bad mood." (A simple command of, "R2, behave yourself!" snaps him out of it.) R2 can also replay sounds and dialog from "Star Wars" movies, answer yes-or-no questions, and dance while playing the famed cantina music. Requires four AA batteries and four D batteries (not included). Minor assembly required. Ages 8 and up. 15" H x 7 1/2" W x 10 1/2" L. (6 lbs.) Expected available date: 04/25/2008.