An Introduction to Volcanology
A mountain roars. Rivers of molten rock race to the sea. Towers of ash and smoke billow into the sky. Volcanoes are some of the most terrifying and magnificent wonders of our restless planet.
Scientists have learned a great deal about volcanoes in the last century or so, but when a volcano stirs, all we can do is get out of the way.
I am neither a geologist nor a volcanologist, but I have a lifelong fascination with volcanoes sparked by Mt. St. Helens and Hawai'i's Pu'u O'o, which I saw erupt in July 1986. Since the day I visited, that vent on the flanks of Kilauea Volcano has been pouring out lava nearly nonstop, adding acres to the the island.
I'd like to share with you some of what I've learned. On this lens you will find information about:
- Volcano mythology
- Types of volcanoes
- Current volcanic eruptions
- Types of lava and volcanic debris
- Historical eruptions
- Volcano cams, videos, pictures and photos
- Volcanoes on other worlds
I will also be including links to good volcano websites and books. Finally, be sure not to miss the dramatic 1960s Kilauea Iki video documentary following a volcanic eruption from start to finish.
Volcano in the news! March 22nd, 10:30 PM: After rumbling for months, Mt. Redoubt, Alaska blew its top -- 5 times! In the weeks since it's been erupting off and on, disrupting air traffic (not just to Alaska; the polar transcontinental flights are having to divert), and dumping ash on local towns in the region, including Sarah Palin's Wasila. Within five hours of the first explosion, I added what was possibly the first-ever live Twitter Feed of a volcanic eruption! See below for the latest Mt. Redoubt news.
In sadder news, German filmmaker Thomas Reichart was killed on Mt. Etna December 2, 2008. Most of the stunning videos on this page were courtesy of his public YouTube channel.
Mount Redoubt Eruption-- Webcam March 23, 2009
Latest News on Mt. Redoubt from Alaska Volcanoes Observatory
From the Alaska Volcanoes Observatory Website, which has a lot of fabulous photos of the eruption! A month later, it's still going.Also see the original March 23 Mt. Redoubt Eruption press release when the current eruption of Mt. Redoubt began.
Live Volcanic Eruption -- Now on Twitter!
- alaska_avo
- aka Alaska AVO
- 8,548 followers
- 1 following
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- AVO lowered the aviation color code to Yellow and the Alert Level to Advisory based on signific... Read more at http://bit.ly/18qahk
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- It's *possible* the current eruptive activity has ended. It's unknown if this is the end of the eruption or if the activity has only paused.
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- Seismic/satellite/gas & deformation observations over the past few weeks indicate lava dome growth has significantly slowed, if not stopped.
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- AVO is lowering the Aviation Color Code to Yellow and the Alert Level to Advisory at Redoubt volcano.
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- Eruptive activity at Redoubt may be continuing at a low level. A 3.2 ML regional earthquake lo... Read more at http://bit.ly/16tOp9
Volcanoes in Mythology
Fiery Furnaces, Infernal or Divine Dwellings
Mt St. Helens by DA Swanson
U.S. Geological Survey
The Romans believed that Vulcan, the blacksmith of the gods, was hammering out Zeus' lightning bolts on his giant forge, and the volcano was his chimney.
The Indians of the Pacific Northwest told stories about the Great Spirit's twin sons, who dwelt on opposite sides of the Columbia River and fought over a beautiful maiden by throwing rocks and fire at one another. Today we call those two "spirits" Mount Adams and Mount Hood, and the maiden is Mount St. Helens.
Hawaiians still speak fondly of their fire-goddess, Pele, whose endless quarrels with her sea-goddess sister occasionally cause her to pick up her hearth and change islands. Again, the myth is a poetic memory of what really happened.
Interesting Note: While I have occasionally found tales about wrathful volcanoes killing people, I have never found any traditions or myths about sacrificing virgins (or anyone else!) to volcanoes. I wonder where this modern Hollywood myth came from?
Volcano Myths on the Web
Here's some links to other web pages sharing volcano myths -- "geomythology" -- from around the world.- CVO - Volcanoes in Historical and Popular Culture - Mythology
- Fun list of volcano gods and goddesses put together by the Cascades Volcano Observatory.
- The Myth of Mt. Hood, Adams, and Mt. St. Helens
- My source for the Pacific Northwest myth of Mt. Hood, Adams, and St. Helens.
- Volcano Mythology in the Asia Pacific Region
- Volcano myths and traditions in Southeast Asia and the Pacific -- the "Ring of Fire" which is home to 90% of Earth's volcanoes.
- Pele Hawaiian Goddess of the Volcano
- Myths and beautiful paintings of the goddess Pele.
- Hawaiian Legends of Volcanoes Index
- ...collected and translated from Hawaiian by W.D. Westervelt, 1916.
Kilaeua Erupts, October 2008
Books About Madame Pele
Here's two books I own, love, and recommend about this popular figure from Hawaiian folklore.The House on the Volcano (Original Title: Kimo and Madame Pele)
Great children's book. Kimo's grandmother tells him stories about "Madame Pele." His best friend's father, a scientist, teaches him the facts about volcanoes. What will Kimo do when an eruption threatens his grandmother's home?
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Pele: Goddess of Hawaii's Volcanoes
A modern collection of Pele stories, with some famous paintings of her. Beautiful little book.
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The Sounds of a Living Volcano: Etna 2001
Amazing Volcano Video Footage, Great Audio
Different Kinds of Volcanoes
A Field Guide to Volcano Types
Geologists classify volcanoes by their shape, eruption style, and mineral composition.Their shapes and eruption styles are determined by many factors, including the pressure and amount of gas and magma (molten rock) rising to the surface, and how much water is seeping down from above and mixing with the magma and gas.
Stratovolcanoes, also called composite volcanoes, form grand, steep mountains that may remain dormant for long periods before erupting. They consist of layers of heaped-up rocky debris, ash, and pipe-like "sills" and "dikes" of lava that provide a bit of a skeleton. The lava is mostly andesite, which is cooler and more brittle than basalt (see below). The plumbing of stratovolcanoes is often blocked by "lava plugs" or domes under which the pressure builds, until, sooner or later, a portion of the mountain explodes or collapses. This is what happened to Mt. St. Helens.
Shield volcanoes are flatter and broader, created by thousands of runny lava flows that pour out from a central caldera, or out of cracks in the volcano's flanks. Lava from shield volcanoes tends to be basalt, a very fluid lava. Calderas are sunken basins, often several miles across, caused when the magma below subsides. Hawaii's islands are a good example of shield volcanoes, whose spectacular lava fountains and flows frequently cover over or add new land, but seldom claim lives.
Rhyolite caldera complexes are huge, but they don't look like normal volcanoes. They explode violently, leaving behind nothing but a vast collapsed area over gigantic magma chambers. Geologists have discovered deep layers of ash and flows spreading out from them for thousands of miles. Luckily, the last such eruption was in 93 AD. Unluckily, Yellowstone is one of these monsters.
Cinder cones sometimes grow on side vents of other volcanoes; other times they sprout on their own. They are steep hill-sized cones around a single vent. They toss up congealed lava in ribbons and cinders (gravel-sized chunks). If the gas pressure subsides, lava flows may ooze out through the base. Cinder cones sometimes change to shield volcanoes.
Some Current Volcanic Eruptions
The hills are alive!
Here are some good websites covering a few of the hundreds of active volcanoes and eruptions occurring around the globe.- Hawai'i Volcanoes Observatory Website
- Hawai'i's many shield volcanoes are powered by a steady flow of rising magma whose location is a little puzzling -- a "hot spot" smack dab in the middle of the Pacific plate. As the plate moves northwest, the hot spot leaves behind a chain of progressively older (and eventually extinct) volcanic islands. These are some of the most active -- and peaceful -- volcanoes on Earth. Mauna Loa would be the world's tallest mountain if it started at sea level; it rises 57,000 feet (17 km) from the ocean floor. The HVO website tracks all of Hawai'i's volcanoes with great photos, movies and daily coverage.
1983-present: Pu'u O'o, a vent on side of Kilauea Volcano, has been one of longest sustained eruptions in modern history. Hundreds of acres have been added to island by lava flowing into ocean.
March/April 2008, Hawaii: Kilaeuea's central crater begins new eruptive phase, with the first steam explosions since 1924! - Alaska Volcano Observatory
- Alaska Volcano Observatory home page. Includes current eruption news, photos and information on 2009 eruption of Mt. Redoubt. Redoubt last erupted 1989-1990, causing local damage, heavy ashfall, and some incredible mushroom cloud ash plumes.
- Montserrat Volcano Observatory
- In 1995, tragedy struck a little Carribean island paradise called Montserrat. Its Sourfriére Hills stratovolcano began a series of Mount St. Helens style eruptions -- huge amounts of ash, mudflows, pyroclastic flows -- that slowly overwhelmed the southern half of the island, including its capital of Plymouth. Half the population had to evacuate. Now refugees are returning and helping to build a new capital in the northern, undisturbed part of the island.
- Stromboli: Lighthouse of the Mediterranean
- Mount Etna on nearby Sicily is quite active, but Stromboli wins first prize for endurance: this island off the coast of Italy has been erupting nearly continuously for thousands of years. This Swiss website covers Stromboli, Etna, and many other active volcanoes, and has some great videos and photos.
- Yellowstone Volcano Observatory
- Roaring geysers and boiling pools of hot mud betray the sleeping giant beneath: an ancient volcano that lies under nearly half of the state of Wyomoing.
- Volcano Discovery News: What Volcanoes Are Erupting?
- VOLCANO DISCOVERY (a website for volcano tours) has excellent updates almost daily on various volcanic eruptions around the world.
Kilauea, Jan '09: USGS, view from Hawaii Volcanoes Observatory
Volcano News Via Google
Latest Media Coverage of Current Volcanic Eruptions
- Mayon more restive, alert up -- Phivolcs
- ... an eruption, a Phivolcs bulletin said. Since June, monitored parameters indicated an increase in the current activity of Mayon Volcano, Phivolcs said. ...
VolcanoWorld Blog: More News on Current Eruptions
Weekly Updates on Volcanoes Around the World!
Volcano World's Blog is a great blog for learning about current volcanic eruptions. Choose your volcano in the sidebar to check on particular eruptions, submit volcano-related questions, or check recent entries for volcano news! Here's the latest four posts:
Fetching RSS feed... please stand byGlossary: Hawai'ian Words Used in Volcanology
Some Hawai'ian words are used as scientific labels to distinguish kinds of lava, but in fact don't mean "lava" in the original language.June who lives on the Big Island of Hawai'i clarifies these terms for us:
"Pahoehoe means smooth, unbroken or satin like. The "Aa" lava is the stony, rough lava. The joke about the sound you make when walking on it barefoot was created for the tourist. The spelling "a'a" has too many meanings to be listed here, but all of the various definitions are dependent upon the context in which the word is used, but none of them being lava. The closest would be to burn; glowing; fire; staring, as eyes (a'a maka) or the throat is on fire with thirst (Ua `a'a ka pu'u )."
Figure Dwarfed by Cinder Cone, Etna
Peter, Carsten
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Types of Lava: Video of Lava Flows
Another Thomas Reichart Volcano Video
Another beautiful movie by Thomas Reichart. Note the a'a flows during the day, and pahoehoe and spatter cones during the night footage (see next section for explanation of these terms).Types of Volcanic Debris
More Stuff Thrown Out by Vocanoes
With stratovolcanoes, all the different layers of ash, old lava, boulders, and sometimes snow and glaciers on top create a mix of different kinds of material that slides down, melts, and/or gets flung a long way during an eruption.Ash, or tephra, is created when old, solidified lava and rocks are pulverized to dust by a violent eruption and hurled up into the sky in huge columns resembling smoke. Ash can travel for thousands of miles or fall like snow. Not only does ash gum up machinery and air filters, but it turns into concrete-like muck if it gets wet.
Pyroclastic flows or surges are extremely dangerous. These swift-moving avalanches of superheated ash, cinders, and boulders can race downhill at up to 100km an hour, easily overtaking anyone trying to outrun them -- even in a car. They bury, shatter, or carry away anything in their path. A hot, heavy ash cloud rolls above and races ahead of the flow. Temperatures inside range from 200 to 700 degrees C. At night they sometimes glow red, hence the old name "glowing clouds."
A lahar (Indonesian word) is a volcanic mudflow made of ash and water, often following river valleys. They are a common hazard with snow-capped or glacier-capped volcanoes. These walls of boiling hot mud have the consistency of concrete and can move at the speed of a freight train, overflowing riverbanks and sweeping away roads and towns.
A Photo Glossary of Volcano Terms
A Picture Is Worth a Thousand Words, As Usual
- USGS Photo Glossary of Volcanic Terms
- Did I miss a term you're curious about? Or are you having trouble visualizing something I described? This fabulous illustrated volcano dictionary created by the U.S. Geologic Survey will answer all your burning questions.
More Types of Eruption, Including Pyroclastic Flows
A.k.a. "Glowing Clouds, Nubi Ardenti, Nuees Ardentes"
It looks light and fluffy, but it's several hundred degrees inside. This kind of eruption is what overwhelmed Pompeii, Herculanium, St. Pierre, many victims of Mount St. Helens, and, in 1991, a renowned volcanologist couple, Maurice and Katia Krafft. If you are downhill from a volcano that produces a lot of ash, take evacuation warnings very seriously.Video Footage of a Lahar
Laima Volcano, Chile, July 2008
This is part of why the Mt. St. Helens eruption in 1980 was so devastating. What looks like a gray river is actually superheated mud and volcanic material mixed with water, and it's boiling hot.Amateur Volcano Videos on YouTube
A lot of these are music videos, but there's some really amazing footage. Listen closely for the volcano sounds in some of them!
Volcanoes in History
Famous and Infamous Volcanic Eruptions
- Mount St. Helens -- Updates from Cascade Volcanoes Observatory
- Mount St. Helens' May 18th, 1980 eruption made history, dropping ash up to 22,000 miles away and causing massive destruction up to 19 miles away -- or farther, in places where its superheated debris flooded local rivers. But that's not the end of the story! From October 2004 to January 2008. Mount St. Helens rumbled to life again in a minor series of eruptions that created a new lava dome within the crater of the 1980 eruption.
- Santorini: Source of the Atlantis Legend?
- Good article on the 1600-1500 BCE eruption of Thera/Santorini, which probably contributed to the decline of the advanced Minoan (a modern name for them) civilization. This eruption was HUGE: larger than Krakatoa.
- The Destruction of Pompeii, 79 AD
- A good English translation of Pliny the Younger's eyewitness account of the eruption of Vesuvius and the destruction of Pompeii.
- History and Eruptions of Vesuvius
- Volcanoes that were active in recorded history are generally still active. Vesuvius has been busy over the centuries. Here's a good page summarizing later eruptions of Vesivius. In fact, this page needs to be updated: there's been ground swelling, rising gases, and tremors for a decade or so in the Naples area, causing some long-term evacuations.
- Krakatau (Krakatoa)
- Try to imagine the 2004 Indonesian tsunami crossed with the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens -- then make it bigger. Krakatoa's 1883 eruption was heard up to 4600km (2850 miles) away. It was also the first worldwide news event, as stunned local accounts made their way around the globe via brand-new trans-oceanic telegraph cables.
- All About Mount Pelee Volcano
- In 1902, Mount Pelee on the island of Martanique utterly wiped out the city of Saint-Pierre. 2 out of the city's 28,000 inhabitants survived the glowing cloud of superheated ash that swept over the city. The aftermath of this eruption was intensely studied, and there are some haunting photographs on this website.
- Mount St. Helens Past, Present and Future
- Apologies for the emphasis on Mount St. Helens, but I was barely 9 during the 1980 eruption, and it left a deep impression on me. Here is another excellent website by the USGS with a detailed account and good photos.
- Vic Camp - the eruption of Paricutin, Mexico
- Mt. Paricutín is the famous Mexican "volcano that grew out of a cornfield" in 1944. It was a cinder cone -- but what a cone! Its unusually long eruption, until 1952, destroyed local villages and displaced a lot of people, but thankfully with minimal loss of life.
- Surtsey: Iceland's Newest Neighbor
- Surtsey is the newest island in the world, at least until Hawai'i's offshore seamount, Lo'ihi, breaks the surface. Here's a fine article with good photos giving an account of this fierce little island that rose from the ocean in 1963.
- Pinatubo Volcano: The Sleeping Giant Awakens
- Excellent website, grim topic. Pinatubo is another of those St. Helens type volcanoes that produced massive amounts of ash and pyroclastic flows. One of my visitors, Paul, noted, "Pinatubo is well documented due to its recent eruption in 1991, but what is little known is that the resulting caldera created a sulphuric lake which is now a geographically phenomenal site of extreme beauty."
Good Books on Historical Volcanoes
Mount St. Helens: The Eruption and Recovery of a Volcano
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Vesuvius, A.D. 79: The Destruction of Pompeii and Herculaneum
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Krakatoa: The Day the World Exploded: August 27, 1883 (P.S.)
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Etna, Volcano Movie Star
Etna seems to be the favorite movie star of amateur volcano video makers, probably because it's easily accessible (just off the coast of Italy) and its eruptions tend to be explosive and loud. Unfortunately that makes it far more dangerous than Hawaii.Volcano Cams
Real-Time Images of Volcanoes
Don't forget the timezone; it will be night-time in some of these places. Also, volcanoes are shy beasties -- it's amazing how often they're hidden by haze or fog. It gives you added respect for those folks who managed to get the good volcano videos shown earlier on this page.
(Screencap I took of one of the New Zealand Cams -- I loved the dinosaur someone posed on a rock)
- Kilauea / Pu'u O'o Lava Lake Cam
- This lava lake formed in July 1986-- and I was there to see it happen! Two huge fissures opened to the left and right of the Pu'u O'o cone on the flank of Kilauea Volcano, and the lefthand one (I think?) was the one that became this lake.
- Mount Saint Helens Cam
- Stop by the archives, too, especially the movies from the 2004 eruption.
- New Zealand Volcano Cams
- This page has links to cams for several of New Zealand's volcanoes, plus current seismograph readings.
- Santorini Volcano Cam
- Santorini/Thera (fairly placid these days)
- Mt. Etna Cam
- Fairly distant cam.
- Vesuvius Cam
- Warning: often hidden by haze.
- Mount Fuji, Japan Cam
- Dormant. PLEASE stay dormant! Fuji-san is such a beautiful mountain; I hope it stays this shape for a long, long time.
- Alaska Volcano Observatory (AVO) Webcams
- Alaska volcano observatory webcams. Includes Mt. Redoubt and many other volcanoes.
Good Volcano Documentaries
Volcanoes Videos on DVD
Volcanoes of the Deep Sea (IMAX) (2003)
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National Geographic - Forces of Nature
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Volcanoes on Other Planets!
Why should Earth have all the fun? The more astronomers look, the more they find out that there are other planets and moons out there rockin' and rollin'. However, it's amazingly cold out there -- the sun is far, far away -- so what passes for "rock" and "molten rock" on these worlds would be water or gas on ours.- Io, Jupiter's Volcanic Moon
- This moon of Jupiter caught everyone by surprise when the space probe Voyager passed by: it had active, erupting volcanoes! Since then, many more have been found on other moons. Be sure to click links at left for great photos and more info.
- Olympus Mons, Mars
- Olympus Mons on Mars is the largest volcano in the solar system. No wonder astronomers named it after the lofty home of the Greek gods.
- "Ice Volcanoes Everywhere"
- Brief overview of ice volcanoes, and where they've been found so far.
- Methane Volcanoes on Titan
- Titan, a massive moon of Saturn, long thought to have oceans of methane, turns out to have methane volcanoes!
- Ice Plumes of Enceladus
- Ice plumes from a moon of Saturn may be responsible for one of Saturn's rings.
- Movie of Ice Geyser on Triton
- From this excellent page on Triton, moon of Neptune.
- Ice Volcanoes on Charon?
- Could there be ice volcanoes as far out as Pluto? Astronomers are itching for a closer peep at its puzzling moon, Charon.
Kilauea Iki Documentary on YouTube
Follow a Volcanic Eruption From Start to Finish
Kilauea Iki was another vent that broke out near the summit of Kilauea Volcano, in a crater right next to the caldera. It formed a substantial cone. Later, the eruption shifted to the town of Kapoho downhill.This dramatic (sometimes melodramatic) 1960s documentary follows the eruption from beginning to end, with amazing footage of gigantic lava fountains, a lava lake, and the village being consumed by lava flows.
It's also a good demonstration of why, despite the great power of Kilauea, it's considered a relatively benign volcano. Ground swelling and minor quakes gave people plenty of warning and time to evacuate.
Take a little extra time to watch this later: it's half an hour, well worth seeing.
General Volcano Links
Volcanology Around the Web
- Frequently Asked Volcano Questions
- Excellent "Learn About Volcanoes" FAQ by the Cascades Volcano Observatory answering questions from "How Hot Is A Volcano?" and "How Do Volcanoes Erupt?" to "Do Volcanoes Do Any Good?" and "Is Dantes Peak Real?"
- Volcano World - The Web's Premier Source of Volcano Info
- One of the most well-known (if not the most scientific) Volcano sites on the web. Lots of good information, very welcoming to kids.
- Volcano Hazards Program: US Geological Survey
- The USGS has a large volcano website with in-depth information on current eruptions, history, vocabulary, and just about anything you want to know about volcanoes.
- Smithsonian Institute Volcano Headquarters
- Authoritative page on volcanology by the Smithsonian. Includes eruption summaries, reports, data and references to most volcanoes that have been active over the past 11,000 years.
- Volcanoes.com
- A well-organized and attractive website covering volcano news and photos.
- Thinkquest's Volcano website
- Excellent overview of every aspect of volcanoes, with good illustrations.
- Stromboli Online
- This multi-lingual website actually covers many more volcanoes than Stromboli, and features some spectacular photography.
- Decade Volcanoes Website
- A site giving news, updates, online tours and photos for several well-known volcanoes.
General Books on Volcanoes
Volcanoes in Human History: The Far-Reaching Effects of Major Eruptions
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Volcanoes (A Firefly Guide)
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Can A Volcano Erupt in Los Angeles?
Just Because People Keep Asking
Hollywood physics notwithstanding, the answer is "almost certainly not." Fires, earthquakes, and the occasional El Niño flooding, yes. Volcanoes, no. Here, a geologist explains why. Credits
Photos with the "USGS" logo are public domain images from USGS Cascades Volcano Observatory.Here's the sources I consulted to build the reference sections of this web page:
- Principle Types of Volcanoes (US Geological Survey)
- Stratovolcanoes (VolcanoWorld)
- Types of Volcanoes (ThinkQuest)
- Types of Volcanoes (Michael Roth, Science Teacher)
- Volcanic and Geologic Terms (VolcanoWorld)
- Lava Flows and Volcano Types (Volcano World)
- Types of Lava and Volcanic Rocks (VolcanoWorld)
- Geomythology (Mount Saint Helens Institute)
Other Good Volcano Lenses
A few other Squidoo Members have visited volcanoes and shared their own photos and memories!-
Craters of the Moon
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"A weird and scenic landscape peculiar to itself," stated President Calvin Coolidge as he didecated the new memorial. A pioneer traveling the Oregon Trail in the 1850s looked at the blackened earth and described the land before...
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Yellowstone National Park
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First established as a National Park in 1872, Yellowstone remains America's best-known National Park for its geothermal features, array of wildlife and stunning scenery. It covers three states--Wyoming, Idaho, and Montana--however, most of the park l...
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Mount St. Helens ★
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Mount St. Helens, located in Southwest Washington State, blasted its way into the history books on Sunday, May 18, 1980 in a spectacular eruption that claimed 57 lives. In March 1980, it began rumbling, attracting the attention of vulcanologists worl...
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Arenal Volcano -- Costa Rica
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We vacationed in Costa Rica, flying into San Jose and driving to Jaco for a one-week stay. From Jaco we made our way up to Tabacón, a hot springs resort in the northern area of Costa Rica. From Tabacón you could actuall...
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EverythingMouse wrote...
Angel Blessings to you for an excellent, informative and well researched lens.
Posted April 13, 2009
kiwisoutback wrote...
I wish I had thought of this lens first! It's outstanding. Thanks again for featuring my Yellowstone lens, which needs some updating. It's one of the first that I created and I haven't done an overhaul quite yet. Squid Angel blessed!
Posted April 08, 2009
Stazjia wrote...
I find everything to do with volcanoes, earthquakes and plate tectonics totally fascinating. You've done a really great lens.
Posted March 25, 2009
C-Joy wrote...
Perfect timing - we are going to "make" a volcano in class tomorrow! The kids will LOVE seeing the volcano videos:)
Posted March 03, 2009
stargazer00 wrote...
It was interesting to read the scientific information on the likelihood of Yellowstone erupting after all the media hype that we hear about it. Enjoyed reading.
Posted January 18, 2009
by Greekgeek
Greetings! I'm not Greek, I just love ancient Greece.
I'm a graduate student in mythological studies -- want fries with that? -- using the web to sha...
